The library provides literature, information about it and information about subjects, facts and data. The kinds of information available in libraries are (a) active (content of the library itself, its documents), (b) passive (informational aides, e.g., bibliographies) and (c) intermediary (transmission of the output of special information centers) The library is "responsible for collecting literature; the job of evaluating and providing information is taken over by the documentation centre, and everything connected with using the literature is the concern of the library." (p. 9)

The changing information environment requires close cooperation among libraries and documentation centers, both becoming parts of larger networks, utilizing new technologies; "in the age of specialization, method is more important than information." (p.11)

"There is no substitute for the systematic collection of literature and for professional processing by means of catalogues, bibliographies, reviews, and subject documentation card file. These should, however, be supplemented by new media of information retrieval which can, with the help of data banks, quickly provide answers to complex problems." (p. 14)

KAPLAN, ABRAHAM, 1964:

The function of philosophy is "to hold the mirror up to nature, and particularly . . . to human nature." (p. 295) Human knowledge is known to very few human beings, hence the main functions of the library are as: (1) a repository service (society's memory), (2) a means of education (improving patrons status in society by sharing with them experiences of others) and (3) a re-search (not extending knowledge but making available the knowledge already existing).

Library focuses on a flow of ideas, shifting throughout history from being 'operating gas station' to 'a traffic transportation engineer, stressing fundamental issue of information flow.

Intellectual foundations of library education are based on the concept of librarianship as metascience: addressing not the nature of things but the ideas about them, the nature of reality, not reality itself, with central concepts of structure, order, and form (as contrasted with narrow subject specialization focusing on substance and content).

Librarians should avoid the tendencies described by the law of the instrument: "give a small boy a hammer and it will turn out that everything he encounters needs pounding."(p. 303) Machine, like a computer, dictates its own ends, we adapt solutions in terms of its capabilities.

There are some similarities between philosophy and librarianship, both disciplines (a) address the whole knowledge and culture; (b) both unable to address the substance and content of knowledge concentrate on its form, structure, order and various interrelationships, and (c) in both the problems come from outside of the disciplines, each serving as middlemen for other disciplines.

KARETZKY, STEPHEN, 1982:

This is a scientific research on the sociological aspects of adult reading. "It describes and analyzes the findings, methodologies, and philosophies of the researchers and the form and dynamics of their research movement . . . to ascertain the types of adults who read books and/or magazines, their motivation, their reading interests and habits, the sources and contents of their reading material, and the effects of reading upon individuals and society." (p.xv)

The study reveals the impact of reading on the nature of library professional, social, political and methodological problems faced by librarians.

"Most of the reading research had relatively well developed social philosophies and strong beliefs on some of the fundamental questions in librarianship (indeed, they considered these two things inseparable)." (p.355)

KASER, DAVID, 1971:

Similarly to Ptolemy's geocentric view of the universe that focuses on egocentricity, Kaser sees librarianship as a center of the whole cosmic order. By comparing librarianship to 'bibliothecal priesthood', the author stresses the importance of the social mission to preserve, organize and disseminate 'the human message', to seek answers to old problems and to be alert to new social issues.

"Unless we do our work well as librarians we could bring about the destruction of our society as the Mayan priesthood may have done in Yucatan." (p. 13)

---- 1975:

Librarians are "generalists without specialization but with sufficient general understanding to be able to coordinate the work of specialists in the interests of complex multi-dimensional causes." (p.29) Librarianship "attempts to develop general knowledge without specialization among its practitioners." (Ibid.)

The value of library book collection to society is twofold: (a) financial, measured in dollars, and (b) humanistic or mission-oriented research. Humanistic endeavor is based on communication between people or disciplines, in each case the participants are changed by the conversation. The major function of librarianship is the preservation, organization and dissemination of the cultural records. This function is indispensable in every human activity.

KEMP, D.A., 1976:

This book identifies the properties of knowledge in the context of communication, its absorption and interpretation. Knowledge is defined as what a person believes and states as his belief; it dependents on the compatibility of that statement with the statements made previously that are believed to be true. Knowledge exists not only in the minds of people but also in books and other records of knowledge.

The scope of knowledge is considered in terms of its relations to personal and social believes, its organization and systems.

Without understanding the concept of knowledge "the librarian or information scientist is like a surgeon practised in operational techniques and equipment, who knows nothing of the structure of the bodies on which he operates." (p.11)

KENT, ALLEN, 1977:

"No one has penetrated the real justification for an information system - the transfer of information to the user." (p.16) Relevance of the information system to the user may be appropriate but not necessarily useful or significant. A better understanding of the information-transfer process is needed in order to develop a 'transfer coefficient' that would objectively relate the output of the system to the user's perception of what is relevant.

KERR, WILLIS, 192O:

"A working philosophy for librarians takes account of librarians and books and men. It considers their ideals and their shortcomings. It reckons their goodness, their wisdom, and their power." (p.59)

William James pragmatism advocates workable principles that would produce results based on moral and logical approach. It implies faith in ourselves, our work and in people. We "must recognize that the moral and intellectual enrichment of the mind is a tremendously important human process, and that therefore the supreme opportunity of libraries in education." (p.61)

---- 1947:

"In 1911 I was calling on psychology to help in getting books used; by 1921 I was urging librarians to have a working faith, in 1934 I was pleading that history be kept young by the writer, reader, collector, and curator of the things that made history; and in 1943 I was frantically asking why professors so seldom look in the card catalog." (p.187) The author asks "whether there may be a philosophy of the use of books . . . a book-philosophy which results in scholarship." (Ibid.)

"Now my present philosophy of book-use is that we have been too long conscious of the chains by which we used to fasten books to the book-racks." (p.188) New printing processes made the book free; it should be fully accessible to the patrons. Yet we limit their use to text-books, or to required readings of few books. Use of paperback editions, micro-card books, open stacks and comfortable physical environment will make that access to books much easier.

KHURSHID, A., 1976

Functions and practices of librarians are not governed by any accepted principle or philosophy. Intellectual foundations of librarianship are expressed by various notion of what librarian and library ought to be: (1) Jean-Baptise Cotton Des Houssayes required vast and precise knowledge of arts and sciences, (2) Cassiodorus focused on interpretation of knowledge, sound learning, reading and copying of books, (3) Naude considered librarian as a specialist in the sources of information and scholarship, (4) John Dury viewed him as a trader, treasurer and dispenser of knowledge, (5) F.A. Ebert concentrated on librarians knowledge of history, bibliography and basic disciplines, rapid handwriting, knowledge of carpentry and ability to repair books.

Chicago's Graduate Library School introduced research with some probing into philosophical base on librarianship. Its critic, C.S. Thompson objected to scientific and research orientation as weakening traditional focus on reading. Danton argued that science deals with acquisition of data, their description and explanation; philosophy is interested in its aims, functions, purposes and meaning.

Lack of philosophy affected sociological foundation of librarianship. Although all writers agreed on social function of the library there was no agreement about its specific duties and functions; some advocated passive role (serving readers when they asked for it), others wanted an aggressive approach.

First to attempt a philosophy of librarianship was Ranganathan (1931) in his five library laws which revealed only two conceptual changes by generalization of the concepts of (1) book (documentation), and (2) growth (as a steady increase in size, but not recognizing the function of 'conserving')

Shera supported the laws as expressing his own notion of library service in terms of maximizing the utility of graphic records for the benefit of the society.

Danton criticized the five laws as not providing open-ended enquiry into the validity of functions and activities; he claimed that library philosophy should start with the philosophy of a society and its role in democracy.

Khurshid included an extensive list of contemporary writers on subjects related to the philosophy of librarianship.

KILGOUR, FREDERICK G., 1966:

" A system is an on-going process that produces some wanted operation and is thought of as a whole rather than as an assemblage of pieces and procedures." (p.167) "Modern systems, in addition of being all-encompassing, ongoing processes, are information based." (Ibid.) "The important aspect of the information base is not the information in process in the system, however, but rather information about what is in process. It is the use of this information, about the form of information in process, to control the system, that distinguishes the modern system from a collection of procedures." (Ibid.)

The library operations did not keep pace with the changing status of information in the society and with the needs of library individual patrons. "To put it in another way, during the last half century, library science - relative to library use - has become increasingly a priori in principle and increasingly self-existent in practice." (p. 169).

New library systems will be information-based, controlled by information processing computers, aiming at efficient retrieval of information for individual patrons.

KING, DONALD W., 1988:

Different approaches to the information relevance are created by different perspectives on issues such as user or system views.

"Information needs are the combination of information messages needed and the purposes for which they are sought; information requirements are users desires for attributes of information, such as accuracy, dosage (i.e. precision) currency etc., and attributes of information services such as quality, speed of delivery, accessibility, etc." (p.21)

Information professions "involve generic information function, such as transforming information," (Ibid.)

describing and synthesizing it, providing logical access to it, evaluating and analyzing its content. Information science, like chaos theory, focuses on patterns in disorder.

KING, D.N., and others, 1991:

"Philosophy is not only inescapable, but necessary."

(p.30) "Every decision and every action is an expression of beliefs and values and ideals, a concrete explication of philosophy applied to practical affairs. Philosophy is the fountainhead from which professional practice flow. In fact, profession means to openly declare a belief. Professional practice is a philosophy enacted." (Ibid.)

Natural rights philosophy shaped library democratic ideals and values reflected in the following principles: (1) The library mission is educational and informational: to inform and enlighten. (2) Assuming human capacity of reason and judgment libraries guard against prejudice in selection policies, by providing full access to all viewpoints. (3) They preserve intellectual freedom. (4) They provide services unrestricted by the patrons origin, age. background, views or ability to pay for it. (5) Libraries protect the confidentiality of their patrons.

The authors note however, that "referring to the fundamental philosophical foundations upon which libraries and their services are based may not always provide clear answers, and different libraries may come to different conclusions concerning interpretation of principles and their application to service, but conscious attention to principles offers a source of continuing guidance for professional practice." (p.40)

KINSTON, WARREN, 1986:

The purpose is a fundamental concept in organized activities and mental functioning. It is not satisfactorily defined, and is often used as synonym for end, goal, object, intention, aim, policy, strategy, direction plan, mandate, objective, results and task.

The author identifies five basic types of purpose: (1) a banner goal (philosophical fundamental and symbolic value), (2) mission (general aims expressing a value consensus), (3) political aim (policy priority), (4) strategic objectives (action-defining purposes) and (5) tactical objectives (task objectives).

Values refer to interests, beliefs, ideals and act as basic criteria for choice. Action involves direct alteration of the social or physical world.

"Purpose is expressed in the act of deciding. Decision may be defined as the application of value to action, and so the system of purposes is also a basic schema for decision-making." (p.149)

KNAPP, PATRICIA, B., 1964:

Most colleges do not provide learning environment. Colleges are neither intellectually exciting nor vocationally meaningful, negating integrated learning environment.

Library potential in integrated learning environment lies in its relationship to the curriculum and the faculty on two levels: (1) at the political-organizational level it should act as a mediator fostering communication between the departments, and (2) as a total system, organizing material for all disciplines, the library can provide an epistemological focus for integration in a curriculum. This includes encouragement of independent studies developing independence of mind as evidenced by ability to arrive at one's own conclusion and by willingness to differ with the teacher.

The Monteith Library project at Wayne University is based on four principles: (1) a bibliographical tool developed by and for librarians stresses subject and form of publications rather than discipline. (2) Starting place in the bibliographical search depends not only on where one wants to go, but where one is (i.e., the amount of information the user brings to the search). This explains why students miss important information and why teachers restrict the free use of the library. (3) Organization of literature follows a standard pattern of original publications, accessed through indexes, abstracts, reviews, or encyclopedias. (4) Similarities and differences in the bibliographic organization of academic disciplines reflect similarities and differences in the history, philosophy, goals, style of work and economic support available to the disciplines themselves.

All these principles clarify the complex interplay between teachers (masters in the field), librarians (organizer of the bibliographical apparatus and the literature) and students (apprentices to the teacher, and consumers to the library).

---- 1973:

Librarianship is practiced in the context of the complex organization, leading to an inevitable tension between the authority inherent in the structure and procedures (i.e., the 'rationality') and the authority of specialized knowledge (i.e., 'expertise') inherent in the professional role.

The author discusses three models of organization:

(a) The Rational Model is symbolized by the organizational chart based on a hierarchical pattern of authority and responsibility. The assumption is that people in higher positions in the organizational hierarchy are knowledgeable about the goals of the organization and means to achieve them.

In practice librarianship is a craft or an art, focusing on concrete and practical aspects of traditional librarianship. Shera's social epistemology focuses on production, flow, integration and consumption of all forms of communication through an entire social pattern; from it a new body of knowledge will emerge which will provide a synthesis for the interaction between knowledge and social activity. This discipline has yet to be developed, meanwhile librarianship's 'authority of knowledge' carries little weight in the rational bureaucracy.

In professional view the goal of service to society overrides all administrative goals, with a profession itself determining specific goals. In librarianship the goals are diffused because we cannot define clients' needs.

(b) The Natural System Model argues that the rational model is inadequate for study of the nature of organization. Human relations school stresses the importance of peer group relations and satisfaction. Professional status in library cuts across grouping according to common tasks.

In a library, organizational context is complicated by involving all types of organizations: a school librarian is closer to a teacher than to students, and an academic librarian had difficulty establishing professional-client relations with

the faculty.

(c) Synthesis and the Structuralist Model point to the weaknesses of both above schools: Rational model assumes an administrative viewpoint, underestimating irrational elements in management, the Natural System model underestimates real impact of formal organizational structure, procedures and the rational motivation of workers. The model focuses on harmony. It recognizes the organizational dilemma of inevitable strains between organizational and personal needs, rationality and non-rationality, discipline and autonomy, formal and informal relations between management and workers. Functional autonomy allows a librarian to recognize his functional dependence upon others for achieving his objectives.

In general librarian view of the organization is dominated by the rational-bureaucratic model, modified by 'democratic' emotional aspects. Individual view of the profession is dominated by the classic model of the profession, searching for professional organizations for enforcement of standards and code of professional ethics.

Organization theory is a component of social epistemology. Increased importance of organizational context in which knowledge is acquired, communicated and used requires that more attention in library education be given to courses such as 'library in society', library and information system and bibliographic organization.

KOBLITZ, J., 1969;

The main "distinctions between the librarianship and information/documentation at the stage of information production reside in the fact that libraries handle the primary information (sources of information) in a documentographic way, and information/documentation centers in a factographic way. The secondary information obtained in this way may be combined, at the second stage of handling into information media. These information media may in turn be subjected to documentographic handling (technical synthesis)." (p. 134)

Documentographic methods expose the content through location, annotation, classification, and indexing. Factographic method focuses on important points in the document contents. Librarians compile bibliographies, reference locations and indexes, the documentalists compile review abstracts and reports in specific fields, focusing on the substance of a particular issue or problem.

The term 'information' is a polysemantic, specifying activity (process of informing), or an object of that activity (a message). (a) As a process, information involves production, accumulation and retrieval. (b) As an activity it means obtaining, processing, storing and distributing information. (c) As a message information is a unity of a physical carrier and a meaning (the thoughts do not represent information until connected with physical carriers).

Specialized information means either (a) the theoretical cognition of facts or circumstances, or (b) experience in a philosophical sense, as "theoretically incondite empirical cognition, and a link between theoretical knowledge and practice which are used to produce a purposeful information message transferred to another individual." (p.128)

Information and documentation provide research, teaching and practice with precise, systematic, comprehensive and purposeful information on a desired topic.

KOCHEN, MANFRED, 1967:

The idea of encyclopedic information system was expressed in the Weinberg report in which information process was considered "as being part and parcel of the process of discovery and innovation; it asserts that the essence of the information problem is to maintain knowledge as a viable unity and that the basic information processes are those of sifting, reviewing, and synthesizing information." (p.10)

In that process, according to Weinberg, "the steps are linked in the sense that the later steps depend on the earlier, the entire information process is chainlike, we shall call it the Information Transfer Chain." (p. 40)

---- 1969:

The author anticipated an emergence of new discipline, developed by both scientists and humanists, called epistemo-dynamics, which may become the bases of information science. It studies processes of knowledge growth, and "is concerned with lawful regularities governing the acquisition of information and its transformation into knowledge, the assimilation of knowledge into understanding, the fusion of understanding into wisdom." (p.195)

Following Cassidy, the author makes a distinction between (a) information as essentially raw data helping to remove uncertainty, (b) knowledge as an interpreted data, resulting from analytic processes, (c) an understanding resulting from synthetic processes, connecting different events, and (d) wisdom that combines knowledge, understanding and experience.

Cassidy states that "fragmentation of knowledge and experience opposes wisdom; excessive speculation, while it may give deep understanding, does not confer wisdom." (p.192)

---- 1974:

Information consists of (a) recorded data (well-formed statements), useful for computer and social scientists; (b) part of communication as a property of coded messages, used by communication engineers; (c) knowledge defined as mental state in answering the question, of interest to philosophers; (d) understanding mental conditions needed to answer the question, generated by theorists; and (e) wisdom a mental state based on knowledge and understanding and used by decision-makers.

Information becomes knowledge, after it is retrieved by the questioner in response to the question asked which set a framework for the specific retrieval. The computer by itself does not create knowledge. It records, reads, stores, transfers, transforms, controls and refers to it; however, together with the user's interpretation it can generate knowledge. "If knowledge means question-answering, understanding is question-asking." (p. 55)

Generic concept of a book is an important source of input, it includes print, non-print and computer programs. The main function of a library is "to maximize the greatest potentially attainable, effective, and efficient social utilization of documented knowledge, understanding and wisdom. This shifts the burden on bibliographic control from keeping track of physical objects to intelligence . . . devising schemes for an intellectual organization of the information resources in the library." (p. 65)

---- 1974a:

The author's analysis of the structure and use of library catalogs provides an important clue to the behavior of the information seeking patrons. Advantages and disadvantages of search strategies based on the search by the author, title or the subject of the book are related to the patron's knowledge of the subject searched as well as to his or her understanding of library organization of recorded knowledge.

---- 1983:

"Librarianship, library science, documentation, bibliography, and information science in the narrow sense . . . have in common a focus on the written records and the physical documents." (p.374) "Librarians are concerned with organizing collections of such documents and facilitating their use." (Ibid.) This involves selection, bibliographic control and reference.

"Information science, in the broader sense . . . is, in contrast, concerned with information, knowledge, and wisdom. Here information is used in its technical scientific sense to denote what is transmitted over a communication channel to remove a receiver's uncertainty about an ensemble. It is both a flow and a patter that flows over a channel."(Ibid.) "To be informed is to experience a change in some cognitive structure; to inform is to effect such an experience." (Ibid.).

Information with meaning become knowledge, knowledge by identifying new relations becomes understanding and wisdom interrelates knowledge and understanding in the world views.

KOENIG, MICHAEL E.D., 1982:

"The interplay of libraries, information processing, and computer technology . . . is beginning to affect us with almost dizzying speed. The threshold effect, and the simultaneous change in the rate of growth of computer technology, have combined . . . to make it difficult for us to respond . . . to our changing information world. We still talk about an information explosion, when in fact we are in the midst of an information controllability explosion. This is . . . a dramatic reversal to all previous bibliographic history." (p.2054)

Traditional technology for information growth grew exponentially at a slow rate. The information explosion doubled every 15 years. The large-scale integration technologies for controlling and manipulating information, grow at the exponential rate greater that the information explosion, doubling every two years.

---- 1987:

The information controllability explosion adds to the increased computational capability (stage I), the storage capability (stage II) and telecommunication using fiber optic cable capabilities (stage III). In stage II "we have created vast systems of meta information . . . [telling us] about the existence of information or documents that might contain the needed information, but we have only began to develop systems that are truly information retrieval systems rather than mere document directory retrieval system." (p.52)

KOLITSCH, MYRA, 1945:

Philosophy of any field requires; (a) identification, analyzes and an appraisal of basic assumptions, and (b) relating them to a larger whole. Librarianship is a social activity, an establishment responsible for maintaining and connecting recorded sources of knowledge with individual patrons.

Philosophy of librarianship must be (1) satisfactory to librarians; (2) "consistent with the social philosophy of the nation or group of people within which it is but one of many interests, . . . (3) it must be able to exist and have its ends and ideals pursued in a world of many conflicting social philosophies, ends, and ideals; (4) it must promote rather than retard or obstruct the fullest development of the highest potentialities of the individual, society, and the library itself; (5) it must be forward looking, and . . . it must

. . . submit to self-criticism, both in its theoretical formulations and in its practical applications, and . . . (6) its ideals must be capable of progressive realization and application." (p.25)

"The social philosophies of democracy, communism, and national socialism require quite different philosophies of librarianship in order that the library may exist and function in accord with the society of which it is a part." (p.26)

Philosophy of librarianship in communism considers people and societies in economic terms, in national socialism as emotional, irrational creatures, in democracy as rational individuals.

In each case library collection promote nationally correct reactions, discarding "those parts of its system that prevent development, progress, change, and the realization of its ideals." (p.31)

KOLODZIEJSKA, JADWIGA, 1984:

The library is a social institution. Its technology depends on the structure that is characteristic of particular society in a definite historical period. Libraries reflect changes occurring in social structure. Their social character enables one to treat them as institutions of culture that mediate between the author and the reader. "Changes in social structure have an external character for the library, on which it has no influence." (p.200) "However, the library exerts influences in the sphere of culture, which includes certain systems of symbols connected with religion, art, learning, and literature. Here, the library performs a communicational role and contributes to cultural integration." (Ibid.)

KOOP, JAMES J. 1988:

In reflecting on the controversy about the place of automation in libraries, the author compares the opposite views with the notion of utopia, which till now meant "a non-existent good place . . . any idealized place, state, or situation of perfection." (p.936)

Kopp thinks that a convergence of technology and service is such utopia, a reaction against the present state of affairs, aiming at change. Without prejudging the results of the proposed changes, the very efforts to introduce them have a significant impact on library development in the vision offered by these utopians.

KRIEG, CYNTHIA J. 1970:

Since no philosophy of librarianship was fully formulated at the time of Putnam appointment as Librarian of Congress, his "thought were based not upon those of librarians but the important philosophers and intellectuals movements of the day

. . . he read widely and formulated an eclectic philosophy

. . . his observations on open access to shelves, cataloging and classification, women's role in the library, library education, librarianship as a profession, the value of books, service to children, furtherance of scholarship, the importance of cooperation and the role of the library in a democratic society are still mentioned in contemporary textbooks on library administration and philosophy." (Introductory note by Joseph Eisner)

Krieg identifies the following concepts as relevant to Putnam's philosophy of librarianship: (a) the library educational role in the community, (b) importance of books, (c) Puritan strict moral code guiding libraries to bring order into chaos, and (d) provision of reading material on all issues,

Philosophers that influenced Putnam's thinking included: (a) Jefferson's concept of democracy dividing library patrons into general readers, who should be given opportunity for basic education, and scholars, treated as unique individuals; (b) John Locke's believes in education promoting principles of virtue and wisdom, (c) Emanuel Kant's individual responsibility for self-improvement, (d) Francis Bacon's criticism of 'mean' books, and (e) Thomas Carlyle's notion of preservation of culture in books.

KRUSHANOV, ALEXANDER A., 1993:

Research in the field of knowledge organization is based on researchers understanding of a general structure and dynamics of the world. It is reflected in the development of the classification schema, which are insufficient in the changing structure of contemporary sciences. The relationships between the inorganic, animate and social systems are more similar that previously assumed, making possible a better systematization of knowledge. This can be accomplished by distinguishing between two kinds of knowledge: "'universal', which does not fix the concrete nature of reflected objects ('number 235', 'system', 'quality'), and the 'specific' type which reflects the concrete nature of objects ('culture' - social phenomenon, 'gene' - biological object, 'atom' - physical object, etc.)." (p.192)

KRZYS RICHARD, and GASTON LITTON, 1983:

Authors discuss four key evolutionary terms: (1) metalibrarianship ('the philosophy and theory underlying the practice of librarianship throughout the world'), (2) world study in librarianship (the process of comparative study itself), (3) global librarianship (library development 'characterized by decision-making for the purpose of satisfying humanity's information needs rather than purely regional or national needs'), and (4) extraterrestrial librarianship (a logical outgrowth of successful global librarianship). (pp.3-4, 201,203)

Characteristics defining librarianship include: the nature, purpose, origin, categories, the interacting variables, and development. Although they search for the theoretical unifying principles in the world librarianship, the authors agree that "as long as various cultures exist throughout the world, and as long as legislation and mores differ from country to country, librarianship will differ from region to region and country to country." (p. 180)

On the subject of philosophy of librarianship, the authors pointed out to its origin in antiquity and Gabriel Naude's first philosophical work, followed by Cardinal Mazarin treatises, an intellectual revolution in USA in 1915, and radically new approach of Lenin in 1917 (defining the special role of the socialistic library).

Other contributions listed: C.C. Williamson's Report, establishment of Graduate Library School in Chicago University and works of Pierce Butler. All these writers addressed the nature of librarianship.

The 'Four Laws of World Librarianship are: 1.The Law of Appropriateness: librarianship must be planned in accordance with the realities of a given country historical background, economic conditions, political situation, and cultural context. 2. The Law of Interdependence: the quality of any aspect of librarianship will be reflected in all other aspects. 3. The law of Partial Convergence: international librarianship requires standardization) and 4. The Law of Total Convergence: through standardization librarianship will converge to form global librarianship. (pp.196-197).

KUBATOVA, VERA, 1974:

Informatics is a scientific discipline reflecting the scientific and technical levels of its society. As a social phenomenon it is a complex system of social information processes.

KUMAR, GIRJA and KRISHAN KUMAR, 1987:

Ranganathan's intellectual life can be divided into three periods: (1) library movement, (2) library management and (3) classification and subject organization. His work is based on Indian culture, history and philosophical tradition. (e.g., use of mnemonics in his models is rooted in Indian mysticism).

In his methodology, as expressed in Five Laws,

Ranganathan adopted a systems approach expressed by normative principles that form the base of his conceptual framework.

The Prolegomena developed analytico-synthetic and postulational approach to library classification, yet logically it emerged from the normative principles. As a mathematician Ranganathan was not "fully conversant with scientific methodology, linguistics, cognition and sociology of knowledge . . . his conceptual framework is therefore implicit in his thoughts. It does not come out explicitly in his writings, so it has to be deduced." (p. 25)

He postulated fundamental categories of Personality, Matter, Energy, Space and Time; his facet analysis influenced faceted classification schedules, subject indexing, vocabulary control terms and computer based bibliographic searching and database systems.

"By ideally combining theory with practice, he seemed to recognize the importance of the law of contradiction in things, or the law of the unity of opposites as the basic principle of dialectics," although by recognizing knowledge as a given, constant process, "he gave the impression of contradicting himself in his writings." (p. 26)

At the time, the book not the reader was the focus of librarianship and information science. Ranganathan perpetuated the same myth in his Five Laws, with the user considered as a passive agent.

Basic for Ranganathan was the concept of subject, defined as "an organized, systematized body of ideas (concepts) easily comprehensible by a normal intellect." (p.30)

Followers of Ranganathan philosophy can be divided into: (1) those who accepted him as a teacher, 'guru', manifested emotive involvement, uncritical loyalty and ideological acceptance of his teaching, (2) Ideologues whose interpretation of Ranganathan's theory was based strictly on his writings, (3) Iconoclasts, who re-interpreted Ranganathan in modern terms, maintaining intellectual independence, and (4) Innovators neither personally loyal nor ideologs, considered Ranganathan's main contribution to the discipline's methodology.

"The reign of universal classification of the order of the Dewey Decimal Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, Colon Classification and Bibliographic Classification ended long time ago. They are relevant only to public and school library systems." (p.31) "Work at the micro rather than the macro level may be the order of the day for research work in future." (Ibid.)

KUNZE, H., 1973

Libraries are old but the librarian's image as an independent professional is young. In the past librarians were scholars without special bibliothecal training, acting as knowledgeable keepers, collectors and guardians. Their education was encyclopedic.

New concept of librarianship emerged with the changing social environment; the most important changes were: (1) rise of a special library, and (2) establishment of library networks.

Major changes began in 18th century with increased literary production, rise of periodicals, secularization and acquisition of older collections, state legislation requiring libraries to collect specific materials, expansion in art, technology and scientific organizations. The library was expected not only to collect but also to serve its collection. The initial focus was on library organization, administration and emergence of bibliothecal science as library administration or economy.

The education of librarians should focus on acquiring fundamentals and technical know-how. Foundations of librarianship courses should include library purpose, methods, principles of book selection, processing technology, administration, basic information services and sociology of librarianship.

KYLE, BARBARA R.F., 1963:

"There was a time when physicians called surgeons 'butchers and barbers', but that is all over and both now serve the cause of Medicine without recrimination or insult flying across the bed of the patient. Ought we not follow this example and jointly serve the cause of knowledge and its communication, without useless argument about whether librarianship is subsumed under documentation or vice versa? Our profession, like architecture, should bridge the arts and sciences, not form a moat between them." (p. 81) "Education based on the three C's - communication, computation and classification . . . would [demonstrate] the indivisibility of knowledge and the need for interdisciplinary attack on the intellectual problems in the twentieth century. One of these interdisciplinary problems central to our interest [is] how far and in what ways can computers serve the cause of information storage and retrieval?" (Ibid.)

In evaluating library services a distinction must be made between efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency can be evaluated by system analysis which however, overlooks an interplay between human creativity and organizational changes, thus preventing the measure of the total library service. Effectiveness is to maximize library services within the limits of available resources.

Libraries, unlike for-profit organizations produce service for users, not products. Efficiency "is putting together an optimal mix of resources. The effectiveness . . . is deciding on the right goals." (p.274)

Measurements of effectiveness are difficult in librarianship, partly because of the issue of motivation. "People may feel a need for information, but this need cannot be measured until it emerges as a demand for service." (p.276)

LANCASTER, F.W. 1977:

The theory of evaluation is based on a need to have clear objectives and measurement tools. Some issues relating to the evaluation of library operations include: (a) library functions and objectives to bring users and documents together, without having controls over users' behavior create difficulties in determining library benefits. (b) Social, spiritual and economic benefits can be related to ultimate library contributions to the society, but are inappropriate for measuring immediate library performance. (c) Ranganathan laws identify aspects of library services to be measured: First law (books are for use) implies library concept as an interface between users and bibliographic resources; second law (every reader his book) implies the notion of accessibility of library service on demand; third law (every book its reader) implies exposure by making bibliographic resources known to users; fourth law (save the time of the reader) refers to relating internal efficiency of the library, i.e., making bibliographic resources most convenient by maximizing the users need satisfaction and minimizing the time loss to the user. (d) Mooers' Law states that the difficulty in information retrieval system discourages its use, and affects the physical accessibility of library services and collections. The accessibility may be: (1) societal (need perceived by society), (2) institutional (determined by library support), (3) physical (ready access), (4) psychological (recognized needs by users), or (5) intellectual (intellectual capability of a patron). (e) Zipf's distribution law states that when a large collection of text is analyzed, a comparatively small number of words occur very frequently and accounts for a large proportion of all words occurrences in the text. This, similar to Bradford's distribution law, illustrates the law of diminishing return.

---- 1978:

The library of the near future will become (a) a center for the access to data bases, providing expert assistance in the use of machine-readable material, and (b) a printout center, collecting, processing and indexing material of local and special interest.

Librarians will be de-institutionalized, and the availability of global information networks, will change a traditional library into 'library without walls.'

---- 1982a:

"The evolution of electronic publishing is essentially an analog of existing printed materials . . . [it will] ensure versatile, efficient utilization of information," (p.3) reduce cost of retrieval; and will have significant impact on librarianship.

Author traces the transition from paper to electronic form through (a) the use of paper only (indexing, abstracting services, a static analog), (b) the dual use (newspapers, popular magazines, new narrative presentation; machine readable form and print on paper, (c) new electronic mode (reference books), (d) conversion from papers to electronic publishing (reports, patents). standards.

First application of computers in libraries was in the production of cataloging cards and microfiche, expanded to the online cataloging, changing library ways of doing things by changing actual processes.

With the disappearance of a traditional library by 2000, few institutions will act as passive archives of printed material; the emphasis will change from physical library to librarian as information specialist, free from a particular building and collection of artifacts.

---- 1982b:

The rate of the present technological acceleration is accompanied in librarianship by failures to visualize all the effects of technological development, including its impact on publishing industry.

Future education most probably be much less book, or institution, centered; with popularity of an open university, a quarter of existing liberal colleges could disappear.

Written word will cease to be a primary means of storing and communicating information, there will be no compelling reason to be able to read, write or do arithmetic; there will be a shift from the learning as presently known to the mastery of technique (learning how to learn). Literacy will primary mean ability to locate, retrieve, select, organize, evaluate and communicate information.

In libraries the most important will be a more efficient access to data online beyond its own holdings.

Electronic networks can democratize human communication, but it can also promote the establishment of 'information elites' (e.g., invisible college), and be affected by economic, technological and cultural barriers. Political and social factors will greatly influence the demand for information and may retard the rate of change, while technological and commercial factors may tend to accelerate it.

"Library in a conventional sense - i.e., a physical facility housing physical artifacts - is beginning to outlive its usefulness . . . [requiring change in emphasis) away from the library as a building housing artifacts and toward the technical expertise of the information specialist who may function independently of any particular facility." (pp.23-24)

---- 1983:

Concept of librarianship is institutionalized, i.e., its name is associated with a library rather than its activities. This is so because libraries existed before librarians, that is, collection and custody of materials existed before the need to service them. Today the focus is still on physical facility (building) rather than on technical expertise of skilled practitioners. Distinction should be made between expertise for diagnosis information needs and prescription, location, delivery, and arrangement of material on shelves.

Technology affected librarianship in two ways: (1) initially computers were applied to the housekeeping or inventory control activities, (2) they fundamentally changed publishing, distribution of information and access to remote sources of information.

This started the process of a library without walls, a gradual disembodiment of the library. Collections of all libraries become electronically accessible to everybody for a fee. Facilities to preserve material will continue but more as museum activities, providing little if any service.

Future of librarians as skill information consultant depends on: (1) the increased demand for information, (2) need for professional help in solving information problems, and (3) library profession ability to adapt to the rapidly changing environment.

The author plea is for a shift in education from the library as an institution toward the skilled information professional with a focus on the librarian and not the library.

As a facilitator of communication, the librarian must study all aspect of a communication cycle from the creation of recorded knowledge, through its distribution, processing, and assimilation to application.

The substance of the librarian's curriculum must be human communication in general, with formal communication receiving most of the emphasis. Our preoccupation with management skills fails to distinguish between the librarian and library administrator, and between the knowledge of computers and their use: knowing how the car work does not necessarily improve one's driving skills.

---- 1985:

The myth that a book is an indispensable element in our society is a nonsense. The evolution is progressing fast: personal computers, electronic mail, videotext techniques, electronic publishing, online full text, new publications for which no print-on-paper exists - all illustrate the dimensions of the change.

Impact on the library is seen in literature searching, document delivery, online union catalogs, ordering of documents, and in direct transmission of text from an electronic store to the terminal of the user.

New communication form in the future will include the use of sound, moving pictures and electronic analog modeling, leading to new art and imaginative literature, such as electronic painting and poetry.

"What I am suggesting, then, is that the printed book will be replaced by something quite different from anything we have yet seen, and this will occur because the medium replacing it will be widely perceived to be better." (p. 555)

---- 1991:

This collection of papers raises a number of ethical issues emerging from the changing technology, including a reevaluation of the existing library ethical code (Clifford Christian). The participants called for the inclusion of courses on professional ethics in library education, stressing their complexity expanded by personal biases (Herbert White). Other ethic-related issues included: quality of service (Charles Bunge), relations with vendors (Donna Goehner), personnel management (Kathleen Heim), commitment to intellectual freedom (Gerald Shield) and conflict resolution of ethical crises (Michael Wessell)

LANCASTER F. W., and C.CLEVERDON, 1977:

Earlier literature focused mainly on the theory and philosophy of evaluation, with little actual evaluation. Recently, more objective and systematic evaluation procedures were developed. One of them was that of evaluating user satisfaction (effectiveness), but limited to the user's demands only (expressed needs), neglecting the latent needs (unexpressed).

Evaluation can be: (a) a quantitative macro-evaluation, answering the question, 'how well is the system performing?', and (b) analytical and diagnostic micro-evaluation, concerned with reasons behind given results and how the performance could be improved.

Fairthorne's proposed that librarians deal in documents not information by affecting patron's behavior in using the documents; librarians merely notify the patron about the existence of the document. Fairthorne pioneered bibliometrics, moving away from subjective user studies. The bibliometric laws of scatter and obsolescence differ from the laws in natural sciences, by referring to the user's behavior in the past, influenced by the way information system is structured: most cited journals are most available and hence even more often cited.

LANCASTER, F.W. and LINDA S. SMITH, 1978:

The paper discusses the major channels by which the research results are disseminated. "The original purpose of journals was not to publish new scientific papers so much as to monitor and digest the learned publications and letters that were too much for an individual to cope with in daily reading." (p.372)

The initial goals of a special library of the last century were defined by: (1) use of recorded information as tools, (2) scope of resources determined by the needs of parent organization, and (3) reference services considered as a principal function of a library. [The special Libraries motto is: 'Putting knowledge to work'].

Informal communication is old but only recently analyzed. Invisible college concept was already known in the middle of 17th century, by scientists meeting informally, formalized later as a Royal Society, with membership limited to scientific elite.

An information gatekeeper is an engineer or a scientist assisting members of the organization in the use of information. The authors describe a society evolving away from formal communication pattern to the paperless, electronic communication. "Machine-readable data bases can be expected to replace many institutions that have been taken for granted as existing forever in print-on-paper form." (p.384)

LANDHEERER, B., 1957:

The author proposes a sociological concept of the 'principle of widening circles', referring to the increased number of readers with increased knowledge. Reading is a genetic habit, necessary for acquiring social status, for emotional release and for spiritual compensation.

Lanheerer identifies four categories of reading: (1) devotional (motivated by spiritual, emotional needs), (2) cultural (enhancement of one's status, and a goal in itself), (3) achievement (derived needs for a successful life), and (4) compensatory (recreational, relaxing). Not included is the reading considered as a means of communication.

A society "will always be expected to state its philosophy and its principles. It cannot refer to a 'way of life', because a way of life does not furnish an acceptable charting of future action . . . Although decisions are always taken when the need arises, the quest for a philosophy is the demand for security . . . if such a philosophy is lacking, a feeling of uncertainty results for which there are no remedies in compensatory reading." (pp.241-2)

"The function of the library is not the spreading of knowledge, but the development of human personality . . . reading means to absorb what is essential to one's mental structure . . . It is the uniqueness of the individual mind which furnishes the motive for writing as well as reading." (pp.248-9)

LANE, RUTH McG., 1935:

The applied philosophy of librarianship is a limited, applied social philosophy, explaining the aims, the functions and the reasons for existence of libraries. Library science has collected and organized facts about library techniques, library philosophy should explain these techniques to the community. The keynote of library philosophy is an inspirational and creative research. (p.151)

Librarianship is defined by Butler as "the transmission of the accumulated experience of society to its individual members thru the instrumentality of the book" (p.152). "Where science specifies, philosophy generalizes." (Ibid.)

LANGLOIS, RICHARD N., 1982:

The author makes a distinction between different contexts for the term 'meaning'. (a) In information content not all signs are equally meaningful and not all meaningful signs have the same meaning. (b) In structural information the meaning is defined in terms of information's action-response impact on the structure of the system, distinguishing between the meaningfulness and the value of a message. (c) In cybernetic system the meaning is defined by the system itself.

---- 1983:

Langlois discusses relationships between systems theory and social science, especially economics, and the ways the systems theory can illuminate concepts of knowledge and information.

System theory is an analytical or reductionist method in which knowing the parts is sufficient to understand the whole. That is, the whole is an aggregate of its parts, as contrasted with a holistic view that the wholes possess 'emergent' properties that cannot be derived from part (the whole is greater than a sum of its parts).

However, the relations essential for the existence of the whole cannot be fully accounted by the interactions of the parts, but must include the interactions of individual parts and the whole with the external world.

In holism, less information is better than more, because too much attention paid to parts, damages the Gestalt concept of the whole.

System theorists distinguish between terminal, causal system and goal-seeking system. In the former case, the meaning of the signal is the response it elicits. In the latter case, response is also the ultimate criterion of meaning; although we have to understand first the goal of the system before we can understand its meaning.

Meaning must always be defined in terms of the system, or the person, receiving the signal. However, information is not homogeneous, hence meaning is a matter of form not of an amount, and its value depends on the receiver and the message itself. The system theory and the theory of knowledge and information must be interrelated in their concern about the form and organization.

Other writers argue that human knowledge is tied to biological and cultural structures. Meaningful to human is only that which is referred to that structure. Such a meaning cannot be extrapolated from the external, context-free computer system.

LANGRIDGE, D.W., 1978:

Librarianship is neither art nor science , "it is a service provided for a community to meet their reading requirements, educational, vocational and recreational . . . the organization of knowledge is therefore a central concept to librarianship." (p.104). It is taught in library schools as classification and cataloging, focusing on techniques rather than aims; information retrieval and indexes, are defined in a narrow sense as the objectives of the knowledge organization.

The focus should be on fundamental principles of the disciplines, distinguishing not so much between theory and practice, but rather between facts (e.g., forms of indexing) and values (judgment of its quality).

Library science is not a synonym for librarianship. The former addresses theory, the latter the practice of the discipline. A distinction should also be made between the education and training for librarianship.

Ranganathan differentiated between the 'universe of knowledge' (a philosophical domain) and the 'universe of subjects' (a domain of librarianship). Both are important in the study of the fundamental principles of librarianship.

A library educational curriculum must include four major divisions: (1) systems of various disciplines within the universe of knowledge, (2) index languages (classification schemes, indexing, etc), (3) design and operations of whole systems (e.g., classified forms of catalogues), and (4) policy issues in choosing particular system.

LANIER, DON and DAN BOICE, 1983:

"The primary purpose of any code of ethics is to 'focus on individual members of the profession rather than on the institutional setting'." (Shirley Fitzgibbons, p.87)

Ethical issues include responsibility for professional work performed, commitment to library patrons, business practice, conflict of interest and loyalty to the profession, colleagues and the parent institution.

LARGE, J.A., 1988:

Information studies are interdisciplinary including management, computer science, communication, librarianship, psychology, linguistic and statistics, all with a strong practical component.

Information studies play an important role in society (research, planning, development, decision-making, problem solving and the learning processes). It is concerned with knowledge, skills, techniques and methodologies that can be brought together to provide effective and efficient information service.

Other disciplines should be thought from the point of view of information studies; they cover broad field of management and marketing, information technology, sources, systems and services, considering information in its social, political and cultural context.

LARSEN, SVEND. 1988:

The author discusses the issues related to the changing technology in the context of Lancaster's concept of paperless society.

New technology links most of knowledge sources in a single network allowing for instant, updated information; it is economic because it reuses existing information. However a library does not provide only the latest, ready-made information. It also makes available 'personal knowledge', an enlightenment in Kantian sense: "enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the instability of one's own understanding without the guidance of another." (pp.160-161)

Information can be processed automatically without human intermediary. Such transformation of informal experience into formalized information can only in part be 'translated' (or formalized) into a software program. That part of programmed information can serve as a marketable commodity, stored and communicated by computer. But this by itself does not eliminate the library, since new technology never handles all the information.

Lancaster focuses on an easy, quick access to 'ready-made' information, free and open communication, ignoring social context and value systems that determine the choice of technology. In general, the development of technology is not a linear process; new invention does not eliminate old ones, but often exists side by side. Information technology will change some aspects of a library but will not eliminate it.

Lancaster views research as a cumulative process, focusing only on the latest information of importance to the researcher. This is true of natural sciences but not of humanities and social sciences, which are intimately connected with human values; human problems are not solvable once and for all, its literature is not obsolescent. He also feels that computer can assess the relevance of appropriate data. This is based on a concept of formalized rules and patterns than can be translated into software programs, thus changing personal and unstructured knowledge into structured and objectified. This is true in routine actions. However, non-routine actions require deliberation and creativity, important in a constantly changing knowledge: "it is impossible to construct a complete taxonomy of human knowledge, and therefore the fundamental problem of information retrieval is unsolved." (Ziman, p.173)

LaRUE, JAMES, 1993:

This is a call for questioning authority by providing citizens with relevant facts needed to correct wrongdoings of the politicians or people in authority, and to provide fiction to make people's dreams about better reality more desirable.

"Librarians are the intellectual auditors of our culture." (p.25) "They add up the philosophical capital, post the expenditures, and calculate the cultural balance sheet . . . [and provide] a means, an inexhaustible tap, a stream of knowledge that can topple tyrannies, unravel republics, and dumbfound democracies." (Ibid.)

LASKI, HAROLD, J., 1935:

The purpose of the public library is to make accessible to people the heritage of the culture, hence its value is determined by the significance of library collection and its circulation.

Library service should be provided to each of the four kinds of readers who read for (1) leisure, (2) self-development, (3) information for a specific purpose, and (4) scholarship and research.

The essential task of librarians is to provide guardianship of culture by protecting its essential aspect, freedom, by resisting censorship.

LAZAR, PETER, 1984:

Librarianship, information science and documentation are closely related disciplines.

In the last 100 years the major focus of librarianship was gradually changed from storage and processing of document, developing cataloging and classification to social relations of libraries and library management, in both period lacking systematic foundation.

The approaches to library theory were pragmatic in the USA, historical in Europe, and later conceptual, expressed by Ranganathan's Five Laws of Librarianship. A new approach is offered by general theory of systems; in it "every library is an open system which is closely interrelated with its social environment and is continuously communicating with the environment through various interfaces." (p.5)

The open information system communicates with its environment through four interfaces: (1) an input interface (acquisition of information), (2) a user interface (output service), (3) material and financial resources input interface, and (4) the interface for human - in and out - flows.

"The structural isomporphism of the information systems modelling both libraries and information centers and the logical homology of these systems provides the philosophical background for the analogous handling of libraries and information centers." (p.5)

LEARNED, WILLIAM S., 1924:

"Discovery, formulation and diffusion of true and useful ideas is . . . the fundamental method of human progress." (p.3) The distinction between advancement and diffusion is primarily a reflection of social philosophy, stressing either the pure research or popularizations of its results. However, both are important. Diffusion of knowledge has a fundamental and far reaching impact on human conduct.

Three types of knowledge are identified: (1) news, mostly commercialized, (2) verified scientific facts, matured judgments and constructive imagination, and (3) instructional knowledge.

Initial lack of organization of knowledge for adult use is being made up by library collections available to all its patrons; there is a need for improving the techniques of making easier the access to these resources, by matching the interests of an individual patron.

There are two kinds of discovery: (a) recognition of mental and emotional attitudes of people, and (b) trial and testing of the variety of applications of knowledge to individuals' mental states. Both expanded the diffusion of knowledge, by recognizing different types of library patrons, adjusting library services to their unique needs.

LEKAI, EMERY.A., 1977:

The function of philosophy is (a) to put the mechanics of our thinking in order, and (b) to identify the totality among the specializations, (c) the meaning of the whole, and (d) the meaning behind the pieces of information.

Librarians should be the generalists specializing in the search for the totality, in terms of relationships between books in library collection. Information is only fragmentary and can be easily handled by computer. The librarian must transcend that level, since information never amounts to knowledge. Everything should be seen in perspective, in context, and in relations.

LE MOIGNE, JEAN LOUIS, 1985:

A lack of epistemological foundations in information systems can be overcome by (a) considering information systems as a science of design, (b) replacing classical formal logic by modal and self-referential logic, and by (c) introducing memorization system in the modeling of complex systems functions and their internal transformation "in order to integrate in the modeling process, both the functions (synchronic) and the transformations (diachronic) of organizational information systems." (p.247)

LEUPOLT, MARTIN, 1981:

"Nature and society exhibit three material factors by which they continually change and develop on the basis of inherent contradictions: (1) matter (mass), (2) energy, and (3) type and degree to which they are organized." (p.19) "Information is a change in the organization of concrete (receiver) objects or subjects, respectively, taking place each time under specific conditions; it consists in the fact that the receiving objects or subjects obtain a message on the existence, structure and functioning of other objects or subjects, by way of organization transfer." (Ibid.)

Thus, the information originates as the reproduction of organization of a specific (sender) object or subject, within another (receiving) object or subject where the receiver's existing organization is changed, positively or negatively, in certain quantitative or qualitative way. Information processes may be technical (material) or scientific (conceptual), individually or socially organized.

---- 1983:

Information originates and is generated "because there exists a need or an interest depending on the existence of a 'receiver' within a specific environment . . . [expressed] in specific individual requirements for specific information." (p.3) It is a product of the transfer process of organizational structure to reduce the uncertainty within that organization.

"The subjective information need is an integral constituent of the objective one and differs from the latter in that it represents that part of the objective information need that has not yet been realized (satisfied)." (p.4)

"To the degree to which the respective society identifies and analyses its objective and subjective information need and organizes its satisfaction, it will also influence the development of human requirements for information and for qualification (for knowledge and control of the real world), as well as influence the meaning of these requirements." (p.7)

LEVINE, MARILYN M., 1973:

The author argues that librarianship is not a profession. This conclusion is based on John Stuart Mill's distinction between a denotation (within a definition) and a connotation (ideas suggested by the definition), together providing the meaning of the term defined.

A denotation of the term 'profession' implies professing a dedication of the learned professions in theology, law and medicine. The connotation implies faith and purpose in saving human life, defending justice and spiritual salvation.

Librarians as curators of civilization do not save life but books. "What librarians need is a strong creed and a public avowal of their intention to search for the steel cables to replace the spider webs that hold up civilization." (p.385)

---- 1981:

This is a criticism of H.Curtis Wright consideration of 'ideas' as metaphysical entity. To Levine this is nonsense, since the 'idea' is a hypothesis, and it arises when a problem requires solution.

Ideas as social hypotheses are rarely tried because they would require experimentation with human beings. Communicating ideas means communicating untested hypotheses.

The author feels that for librarians the idea-as-hypothesis should be: if librarians do 'x', then people will read more books. "The information scientist who tests this hypothesis will be the first of the true scientific leaders for the science of ideas without metaphysical claptrap." (p.2)

LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (Great Britain), 1980:

This draft of the Association's professional code of ethics is based on Francis Bacon's notion that 'knowledge is power', and on the concept of freedom of access to information.

The ethical problems for librarians increase with the decreased specificity in the definition of knowledge in its social context, and with lack of information. In organizing and disseminating knowledge, librarians reflect the development of social needs and society's mandate to provide access to all forms of recorded knowledge.

The code stresses librarians primary obligations to their clients, equality and confidentiality of service, obligations to the parental institution, professional competence and professional judgments free of external, financial influences.

Lin, J.C.R., 1965:

Licklider anticipated the concept of 'expert systems' by describing possible application of a computer in information retrieval, as a procogntive system based on a dialogue between user and the system. However, he did not recognized the problem of the nature of knowledge itself, manifested differently in different disciplines.

He called for rejection of the concept of a physical library, the schema of the book itself, and even of the printed page as storage devices, as not sufficient by themselves in procognitive systems that will be needed in the future.

LIGOMENIDES, PANOS A., 1985:

"Spatiotemporal 'forms' appears in the symbolic space, either as an output in the course of reasoning or as a product of natural processes of law and chance. Form may be recognized as 'information', filtered, interpreted, abstracted into experiential and expert knowledge, and acted upon by biological or artificial reasoning, to produce more forms and information. Information is viewed as the commodity of communication and mentation, and as a central actor and force in shaping the world around us." (p.149) "This is of essence, if we are to reveal the mechanism (if any) of biological reasoning, and of the evolution of biological and human cybernetic systems." (Ibid.)

LILLEY DOROTHY B. and RONALD W. TRICE, 1989:

The book identifies three components of information science: (1) trends, (2) leaders, and (3) environment for the development of the discipline.

Trends are divided into 5 historical phases: (1) information science: 1945-1968, (2) nonconventional information systems: 1948-1968, (3) library applications: 1958-86, (4) online activities: 1940-1985, and (5) networks: 1965-1985 (elimination of geographical barriers).

The major focus is on trends in emerging discipline aiming at the availability of information based on the economy of scale: more extensive the use of information, cheaper the service.

Two major types of information science are identified: (a) indexing (databases), abandoned by librarians, and (b) cataloging, not yet embraced by information scientists.

The environment for the growth of information science consists of conferences of the specialists, sociological changes in the human attitude toward computer, and technical developments.

LINDSAY, JOHN, 1977:

The author is critical of the ways library functions are defined. "To swim briefly through some of the literature which deals with this aspect of library practice consult Nitecki who says 'a proposed main objective of the library is justified by indicating its closeness with other ideals as already highly desirable in the society', 'the library [is] conceived as an institution serving social democracy and the self realization of its citizens'. Similarly, Joekel, Wellard, and Kolitsch, who goes as far as to say that a theory of librarianship would indicate the identity of the objectives of democracy and librarianship. McColvin says 'in a modern democratic society all people must be freely able to use and read, without hindrance or bias or limitation, all those books that will make more or less significant contributions to their lives.' While James Thompson says that librarians 'as the guardians of freedom of thoughts are the bastions of liberty'. And Foskett says that as democracy depends on an informed electorate and the source of information of the electorate is the public library, cuts in public spending on libraries are an attack on democracy." (p.47)

Lindsay points to the lack of scrutiny of these social beliefs by not questioning the real value of the democracy as presently practiced in the West. Different interpretation of democracy is offered by Lenin, Marx, or Mills and different interpretation of librarianship in other countries; a gap between liberal humanism of the last century and the contemporary revolutionary socialism requires much more rigorous consideration.

He argues that the concept of linking the freedom of an individual with his social dependency, and aiming at improving patrons life, and giving them what they want leads to 'an irreconcilable contradictions.'

By "using words that no-one understands and which allow maximum confusion philosophy becomes mystification and practice justifies the legitimacy of the power of those who exercise it, both acting together in the interests of those on whose behalf it is exercised." (Ibid.)

LINDSEY, JONATHAN A., 1994:

Till late 20th century library ethics was defined in terms of the accepted rules of behavior. After 1970, with the introduction of automation the concepts of ethics and professionalism were joined.

The scope of ethics in librarianship can be defined in terms of three basic concepts of integrity, morality and the interpretation of ethics.

Integrity relates to the responsibility for the collection, conservation and preservation of resources. Since last century's public library movement, the distinction between integrity and morality narrowed considerably. The interpretation of morality is culturally determined.

In United States the official statements on ethics were codified in 1976 and 1981. They provide no behavioral prescription, although the concepts of intellectual freedom, professional relationships and services within and outside of a library were formally accepted by the profession, but not enforced.

With the development of informational technology ethical interests become worldwide, with the focus on copyrights and protection against liability. The most developed are the codes of ethics in special librarianship, especially in medicine and law.

However, the pluralistic library education in the United States resulted in a lack of homogeneity in interpreting the common body of library knowledge, professional identity and uniformity in the entrance requirements to the profession.

"Because of this vacuum, ethics among librarians has been an amalgam of morality and integrity, which, interacting on the basis of the strength of mores, has provided the grounds for the extant codes of ethics and for the continuing concern with moral behavior evidenced in the literature." (p. 188)

LINDSEY, JONATHAN A. and ANN E. PRENTICE, 1985:

This is a review of the development of ethical code by American Library Association. The focus is on case studies related to the professional behavior of librarians. The book offers no philosophical analysis but is a valuable resource material for further research.

LINE, MAURICE B., 1964:

Librarianship is a social science. This implies a number of relationships between librarianship and social interpretations of its mission. (1) The selection of material for library patrons is conditioned by social, political and religious beliefs; (2) this provides librarians with a social weapon that should be used carefully; (3) librarianship must be considered in the social context and judged by social and moral standards; (4) librarianship provides means of communication between books and their readers, requiring knowledge of books, their readers and communication techniques.

"The study of books includes their arrangement, their physical form, and their contents . . . the study of people [requires] some understanding of them . . . sympathy with them. (p.272) "The importance of knowing people is one very good reason why the traditional book-worm-librarian has no place in a library." (Ibid.)

---- 1968:

"We see deficiencies of our libraries, but we do not know what useful purposes are hidden by these same deficiencies." (p.151) Thus, by automating what we do not understand, we may do it at the expense of omitting real advantages of non-automated library systems.

"The function of the university library is to bring together information and knowledge on the one hand and human beings on

the other." (p.148) Information is more than just a page in the book, it extends to its layout and its form. It is transmitted from the human brain as a source through the transmitter (recorded information) to the receiver and his brain.

Transmitted information is never exactly what the brain conceives because of the engineering and semantic noises contained in the book and cataloging structures. The library is expected to transmits the message with the minimum amount of noise possible.

However, library communication is limited by its one-dimensionality and linearity (one theme at the time), its visual form (offering repetition not redundancy), information threshold, recall and relevance. "The more the search formulation is restricted, the higher the ratio of 'relevant' to non-relevant items, but the greater the loss of relevant items." (p.152)

Only the reader's brain can retrieve the information it needs. "We cannot evaluate the adequacy of a system solely from the use of it, for this use is itself conditioned by the system." (p.150)

---- 1975:

A library has a number of mysteries (of its operations), mystiques (terminology used), a high noise-to-signal ratio literature (often of little significance), the idea of eternity (collections build for the future use), and dependence on numbers (statistical interpretation in e.g., citation analysis, modeling and operations research).

Donald Urquhart demystified these notions by ignoring their existence, by stripping the descriptions of librarianship to their bare essentials, and by considering means that need improvement in terms of the end aimed at.

"What harm has mystification done? In small quantities, indeed, it can be relatively harmless. But in general, it inhibits change, wastes staff and money, confuses users, corrupts education and training, and pollutes research." (p.116)

---- 1983:

Many of the library changes suffer from the problems not identified, alternatives not explored. Professional education "stresses knowledge rather than imagination, analytical ability and the spirit of service. (p.6) "We lack humanity as well as intellect, imagination and initiative. (Ibid.) "The boundaries [of librarianship] seem very fluid with the new developments. Doesn't our area include publishing book, selling, broadcasting, telecommunications, computer processing and advertising? We must see our future in this broad context and to achieve this we must return to fundamentals. What is the future society, what will individuals need for information and leisure, as well as research. The failure of initiative is implicit in all this."

(Ibid.)

---- 1991:

The 'eternal values' of research libraries are defined as the values of (a) scholarship determined by the access to resources, (b) service to scholarship, and (c) educational values beyond the satisfaction of immediate needs. "The values of libraries cannot be separated from those of society; they not only reflect them, but can also help to influence them." (p.51)

LIPETZ, BEN-AMI, 1966:

Information storage and retrieval are concerned with methods of creating and managing collections of records by facilitating the recovery of pertinent records. The computer provides high speed access to carefully defined and limited stores of records.

However predicting human information needs based on

understanding the ways people make associations and value judgment is an intellectual problem. Automated devices used to store information improve library efficiency, but the provision of instant access to everything ever published is far from being developed.

---- 1980:

"The fundamental and unifying activity . . . in information science profession is the facilitation of the utilization of records." (p.21) The tree relevant concepts are records, utilization, and facilitation.

Record is anything durable that can convey meaning through written or spoken language.

Utilization describes how people might be served by records. Use of records is characterized by motivation or by involvement. Various uses may be expressed statistically, sociologically (attitudes), psychologically (comprehension), physiologically (ability to acquire information), and by information theory, (potential and actual use of information channels).

Facilitation refers to knowing about possible actions, their relative values and ability to carry out or organize such action. The historian or an information scientist is interested only in the study of records and their use. The practitioner has desire and ability to facilitate the use of the records.

LOCK, R.N., 1973:

The author asks philosophical questions: Why books are collected and made available to public institutions? What are the principles behind desire for transmission of knowledge, preservation of older material and creation of new ideas?

The answers to these questions are reflected in library administration, which defines objectives, establishes criteria of adequacy, and provides mechanism for library adaptation to perennial changes in societal context.

19th century ideal of free and universally available library services was neither desirable nor economically feasible, thus leading to the separation between university, public and special library, each serving different clienteles, with the diminishing common denominator.

LOFGREN, HANS, 1985:

This is a criticism of Daniel Bell's contention that recent technological development rendered much of the analytical approach of an industrial era obsolete.

This viewpoint is challenged by scholars, yet the view is endorsed by many library writers. The concept of information as a basic resource of advanced economy is appealing to the information workers, hoping to play major role in the 'new age'.

This attitude is reflected in "a shift away from the outlook which has dominated mainstream librarianship. (p.28) Theoretically it was influenced by the nineteenth century social and political philosophy of liberalism with its emphasis on the role and rights of the individual . . . for example the right of the public to free access to documents." (Ibid.)

The contemporary library and its traditional ideals of culture and education are considered as outmoded and unrealistic. This new approach serves "to reinforce the self-image of the librarian as a professional with technical proficiency, selling services to whomever is able to demand and pay for these, belonging to the technical-professional elite."(Ibid.)

"Thought it is an ideological current which in itself is not a major cause of changes taking place within library and information field, it legitimates and reinforces a move from the 'liberal', mainstream tradition of librarianship, to a business corporate' market approach to libraries." (p.29)

LUCKHAM, BRYAN, 1971:

"The philosophy, objectives and role of the public library have sometimes been discernible only in retrospect by historian, endowed with the objectivity given by distance." (p.1)

The library function can be defined in terms of what clientele the library serves, and what kind of library is best suited to serve that clientele. In the past British public library has been seen as an adult's educational and recreational agency; patrons were an elite, highly motivated to seek self-improvement. It however could not become working-class institution because of its middle-class culture.

In the twentieth century British libraries "the obligation to provide some form of redistributive justice for the educationally underprivileged appears to have been quietly dropped. Instead, the task of the public library comes to be seen as that of universal provider, available to all, with its priorities less clearly demarcated." (p.5)

British libraries faced the dilemma: "how to steer a course between the scylla of involvement with, or absorption by, the formal education system and the Charybdis of being lost in the infinite expanse of general culture and recreation." (p. 1). It chose a passive role as a storehouse of knowledge and culture. However, although the official definition of library activities was limited, many individual librarians redefined the mission of their library in terms of the specific environment of each library.

LUKENBILL, W. BERNARD, 1983:

In 1930s Shores introduced the concept of 'library college'(learning in the classroom through the interaction between faculty, librarians and students) and 'the generic book'(media formats as extensions of the book). Learning effectiveness can be improved by applying generic book in library college model. The concept was not accepted primarily because of its cost and lack of expertise by both teachers (in a bibliography) and librarians (in subject areas).

A lack of a conceptual framework in librarianship prevents development of theoretical foundations for research and practice. Librarianship as a social science deals with "intellectual and information records produced by humanity in the course of social interaction and communication." (p.110)

"Many social science theories are based on assumption about the nature of people in social context and relationships." (ibid.) They "are unprovable; they cannot be easily submitted to empirical verifications [furthermore] many social concepts do not have commonalty of meaning among all social scientists." (ibid) This "leads to the rejection of some research conclusions . . . [and] is also a fundamental problem in library science." (Ibid.)

LYLE, GUY R., 1963:

In pioneer days librarianship was "an endeavor to persuade people to read, enjoy, and understand the value of good book." (p.2) The period "from the twenties through the forties - reflects the gradual transformation of the librarian from a scholar or intellectual leader into one skilled in organization, administration, and personal and public relations." (p.3)

Library functions are (a) to serve education and to entertain, by selecting and making books freely available, and (b) to organize library resources for effective use.

Any reading for pleasure always provides some knowledge. The book selection counterbalances the mediocrity of mass culture by evaluating each selection in terms of its content documentation, objectivity, accuracy, comprehensiveness, readability and permanence.

There is "an essential connection between advances in knowledge and the discovery of truth and the indexing, analyzing, and cross-referencing librarianship. By acquiring, indexing and coordinating, the librarian strikes the balance, corrects where previous representation misled, and drives the harder the next researcher seeking the truth." (p.9)

LYNCH, B., 1979:

The author identifies two major themes in the library literature on organization and management: (1) a library considered in terms of its formal characteristics, stresses relationships of hierarchy of authority, size, rules and division of labor, aiming at ways to achieve maximum administrative efficiency, and (2) studies of informal processes in the library, describe experiences, attitudes and behavior of individual staff participation in organization. Their objective is to find organizational characteristics which inhibit the achievement of library goals of service. These studies complement each other, with however little synthesis into a single framework.

Popular meaning of bureaucracy expresses inefficiency and red tape; the sociological meaning refers to administrative aspects of organization, with the tasks to maintain and coordinate activities of its members.

Bureaucracy and professionalism have a lot in common; each requires impersonal detachment, specialized competence and basic decisions on rational application of standards. However, bureaucratic authority rest on official position rather that on technical skills or competencies; it requires compliance under a threat of sanctions. On the other hand, professional authority rests on possession of expertise and abstract knowledge supporting skills; it is self-governing through associations of peers, professional standards, ethical conduct and is service oriented.

Libraries are bureaucracies performing routine tasks that reduce uncertainties, increase predictability and centralize authority with a tendency toward internal efficiency. The bureaucratic form of libraries aims at control of library environment.

LYNCH, MARY JO and GERALD HODGES, 1994:

The survey of library professional concerns, conducted in 1993, indicates that the access to information, legislation, funding for libraries and intellectual freedom remains most important. Among the new concerns registered since 1985 is information technology research that was ranked 11 in importance. The philosophy of librarianship was considered the fifteenth, among the sixteen most important areas of conceptual interest to librarians. The questionnaire also listed 56 areas of action that identified things to do.

LYDENBERG, HARRY MILLER, 1933:

The author offers a "plea for particular attention to the occasional gifted spirit who can stand forth and inspire confidence as a teacher . . . as he offers the book to the reader. This intangible, immaterial quality, not easily defined but unmistakably recognized when present and exercised, is of paramount importance in the librarian who, linking reader and book, is unquestionably a part of the movement for adult education and who values his association with that movement as among the most satisfying in his career." (p.264)