Nitecki, Joseph Z. 1995. Philosophical Aspects of Library Information Science in Retrospect. Volume 2 of The Nitecki Trilogy . Also Available as ERIC 381 162.
3.1.1 Metaphysical definitions.
A number of complementary definitions describe the generic book as: (1) an independent entity, transcending reality, the meaning of which is expressed in print and interpreted uniquely by readers, as a substitute for experience, thought, and memory (Butler, P., 1953a); (2) the essence of librarianship, a record of ideas about a universe composed of causes, relations, and meanings (MacLeish, A., 1972); (3) a carrier for a permanent text, made of varying materials and format, which reflects cultural needs and available technology and is designed for distribution (Metzger, P. A., 1994); (4) an essential transmitter of knowledge and an object of affection, containing facts and ideas that express the universal mind of humanity (Bostwick, A. E., 1907); (5) a record of civilization and a total means for communication (Shores, L., 1971); and (6) a vehicle for ideas that affect everything (Wallace, S. L., 1960). The philosophy of book use calls for full and free access to book collections (Kerr, W., 1947).
3.1.2 Epistemological characteristics.
A distinction is made between the nature of information and the generic book: (a) information is raw data, removing uncertainty, (b) a book may contain knowledge (interpreted data), understanding (a synthetic processes), and wisdom (which combines knowledge, understanding, and experience) (Kochen, M., 1969). Books endure, are cumulative, add new knowledge, and have focus and tradition, while information is about everything, making the reader well-informed but ignorant, and it quickly becomes obsolete (Boorstin, D. J., 1982). However, books are also dispensable and will be replaced by different and better devices (Lancaster, F. W., 1985).
In McLuhan's 'the medium is the message,' the mind is reduced to a tool. However, the message in the book contains information that is assimilated in the mind as knowledge (Foskett, D. J., 1979). The concept of book obsolescence refers to its format, not its content. McLuhan does not pass judgment on the changing message, but on the obsolescence of its format.
Facts are meaningless without ideas that determine their meaning. A distinction is made between (a) 'conformation in book' (i.e., ideas contained in the carriers of information) and bibliographic citations that are merely pointers to the ideas (Traue, J. E., 1992); and (b) the data of the content analysis (document) and their context (the author's intended meaning). Content analysis is either a research method or an unscientific interest in the text (Allen, B. & D. Reser, 1990).
Librarianship is basically the collection and preservation of books, available to patrons for instructional and intellectual purposes; they will be supplemented but not supplanted by new technology (Powell, L. C., 1957, Radcliff, F. W., 1991). The format of the book is an indicator of its past successful use (Neill, S., 1971).
Librarianship is responsible for the preservation, dissemination, and interpretation of the knowledge contained in books (Shores, L., 1971). The primary aim of the library is to bring books and readers together (Wallace, S. L., 1960).
Library standards reflect readers' educational and economic status. They oscillate between scientific, precise description and literary, intellectual analyses. The standards are not self-evident and require special skills (Steiner, G., 1972).
There is a shift (a) from a focus on the physical book and its content as inseparable concepts, to one considering content of the book and its management as a primary element, and book issues as incidental (Adams, T. R., 1984), and (b) from a book as a material thing to a book as a living function, implying that it must be policed by librarians as doctors and hygienists of reading (Ortega, J. G., 1934).
In spite of the predominance of computerized technology, there is still a lack of interest in incorporating the electronic book in library collections, although it will become the future carrier of information. Electronic book publishing should be influenced by the needs of library patrons (Robinson, C. M., 1992). However, pseudo-philosophical discussions of virtual reality do not contribute to the understanding of the electronic media (Heim, M., 1993).
3.1.3 Valuational assertions.
The value of books varies with their readers and non-readers, with the content of the book, and with readers' knowledge of the subject. Hence, the monetary value of a library system is only a part of its total value to the education, literacy, and democracy (Smith, J., 1981).
The esthetic approach to librarianship stresses the inspirational values of books, their assistance in formulating character by providing background for understanding reality, and increased sensitivity to cultural values. A belief in book values is a prerequisite of the library profession (Haines, H. E., 1950).
Librarianship is not primarily involved in education or science, and it should focus on esthetics of book reading as a cultural phenomenon, by propagating good books that are not affected by standards of mass culture (Sayers, F. C., 1950).
Book selection is based on its value to the readers (Benjamin, P. M., 1962).
3.2 The bibliography.
Broadly defined, bibliography is a science of books and their intellectual aspects; narrowly defined, it is a study of literature that relates to: (a) library collections and catalogs, (b) a book's subject, (c) the history of books in research and criticism, and (d) the philosophy of logical and ethical interpretation of books' functions (Schneider, G., 1934).
Bibliographic control provides direction for publishing processes. It is mindful of the cybernetic law of variety (only variety can destroy variety); it also relates to the relevance of information retrieval and provides a stimulus for new thoughts in the mind of a person using retrieval system (Wellish, H., 1979).
The bibliographic community is a heterogeneous group that includes librarians, information scientists, engineers, and various technicians. Its objective is to make the output of the publishing industry accessible by identifying the existence of particular publications (Wilson, Patrick, 1983).
Bibliotherapy is defined either as a tool for treating a psychological disorder or as a guide to reading materials. Readers' level of reading ability is related to their intellectual development, which influences personal behavior and moral or ethical values (Churchyard, R., 1978).
Bibliotherapy is used for growth and healing by means of literature and by direct dialogue between facilitator and participant, based on unique reactions of participants to various kinds of reading (Hynes, A. M., 1987).
3.3 Bibliographic instructions.
The philosophy of library instruction states that it is librarians' responsibility to implement it on continuous bases (Dudley, M., 1983). The basic function of instructional material centers is to support school-wide, independent, and group-wide inquiry, with creativity as its key objective (Taylor, K., 1968).
Teaching students what to learn prepares them for the past, but teaching them how to learn prepares them for the future. The best approach is for students to learn the use of library resources by themselves with occasional teachers' assistance (Stueart, R. D., 1981). However, the notion that librarians should teach patrons how to use bibliographic tools themselves, claiming at the same time librarians' exclusivity of bibliographic knowledge, is a contradiction (Berry, J. J., 1977).
Controversy about bibliographic instructions is reflected in the views of (a) Patrick Wilson, who supports it, maintaining that reference teaches the use of a library, and (b) Pauline Wilson, who opposes it, maintaining that librarians are not teachers and library instruction interferes with patrons' self sufficiency, discouraging independent learning. The compromise is to recommended instruction for certain libraries only; some patrons can be encouraged to learn the use of the library themselves, while others may need instruction (Harris, R., 1989).
3.4 Censorship.
3.4.1 Metaphysical definitions.
The meaning of censorship varies with historical period (Stielov, F., 1983, 1984). It is an argument against the freedom to read (Wagman, H., 1964). However, freedom itself is a philosophical paradox since the freedom of an individual is bound with the freedom of other individuals. Hence, the library approach to individual needs must be based on individual freedom to read, in the context of the freedom to read by others (Dyer, C., 1969).
Censorship may be an expression of a social protest, objecting to the values propagated by a given book, as conflicting with the values of the library community. Negating such a protest may preclude the possibility that the protestors have a valid concern (Strover, M., 1994).
3.4.2 Epistemological characteristics.
Book selection and censorship, although identical in effect, result from different causes. Censorship is most often invoked in the areas of (1) political freedom, which is not an absolute concept, often determined by courts, (2) religion, implying free speech protected by more free speech, and (3) morals, determined by the author's intent, the effects of his work on others, and the community consensus (Carnovsky, L., 1950).
Confusion between book selection and censorship is explained in part by a book's potential to disturb the status quo, which produces uncertainty and disagreements in the community; yet, freedom to read is directly related to objective library service (Cushman, J., 1962). The use of censorship to limit expression is synonymous with selection based on quality of material (Gaines, E.J., 1968).
Arguments for censorship include the notions that: (1) the library's mission is to enrich the community, (2) selection must be made, since no one can have everything, (3) societal values cannot be ignored, and (4) extreme views reduce intellectual freedom by dehumanizing individuals.
The conflict arises when the community standards contain prejudices and challenge the librarian's decision (Neill, S., 1988). As a social integer, librarianship makes recorded social memory available to the public, exercising censorship as its social duty (Vincent, G. E., 1904).
The library shapes public judgment by providing evidential material (Ogilve, R., 1940). Its service must be free of propaganda (Green, S.S., 1876), although the public library is expected to censor material that is unacceptable to the community it serves (Neill, S., 1988).
Since the impact of reading on individuals will never be fully determined, the censorship of any book, expressing any ideas, is not justified (Fletcher, H. L., 1968).
3.4.3 Valuational assertions.
The importance of reading material by itself is not enough to counteract the negative values of censorship (Gaines, E.J., 1968). Technology is not ethically neutral, and information value is subjective, depending on a situation (Berry, J. J., 1987b).
The 19th century concept of censorship was based on W. Learned's assumption: "when in doubt leave it." It was opposed in theory, but at the same time it was considered a way of preventing moral deterioration by withdrawing censored material from circulation. In the 20th century libraries advocate freedom of information but maintain indirect censorship by devices such as fiscal control and restricted circulation policies (Stielov, F., 1984).
There is a misunderstanding between the two principles: (1) the action produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people (J. S. Mills), and (2) the deontological argument that right action is determined not by its consequences but by principles of justice and duty (Kant, W. D. Ross). Thus censorship is undesirable because of its consequences or because it violates the rights of self-expression. Right action is more important than its utility, and not all that is right is also desirable. Librarians should support the consequential argument against censorship, acknowledging, however, the right of the public to question the content of library collections that are supported by public taxes. In the U.S., the argument for intellectual freedom is stronger than the consequential assertion (Ward, D. V., 1990).
3.5 Classification and cataloging.
3.5.1 Metaphysical definitions.
Library classification is based on metaphysical theories of reality and logical systematization of book contents (Graziano, E. E., 1955). The object of classification is to identify structural differences and similarities among individual concepts without compromising them (Broadfield, A., 1946). In the classification of knowledge pre-scientific presuppositions are influenced by genetic, social, and personal factors. Scientific presuppositions consist of metaphysical premises and serve as departing points for scientific research (Meijer, J. G., 1991).
Classification is not an entity but a mere empirical equilibrium of divergent forces obtained by compromise (Butler, P., 1931); both classification and subject analysis are not ends in themselves, but means to provide readers with needed information (Foskett, D. J., 1964a).
The principles of classification of intellectual history address the analyses of parts of books to facilitate their retrieval, rejecting the consideration of a book as a unit in hierarchical classification by genus and species (Robanowice, R. J., 1975).
In cataloging, sociological philosophy stresses proficiency and purpose of cataloging processes related to goals of parental institutions and adjusted to their changing needs (MacPherson, H. D., 1939).
3.5.2 Epistemological characteristics.
The universe of knowledge is a changing continuum requiring constant revision of classification to find and enumerate basic categories and possible fundamental types of relations between them. Representation of knowledge is obtained by permutating the categories and relations (Ranganathan, S. R., 1951).
The classification of knowledge requires acquittance with its total environment and understanding of the principles that define its scope (Gregory, L. H., 1959). Retrieval of graphic records relates directly to the way knowledge is analyzed, arranged in a classificatory systems, and adjusted to the expanding range of observed phenomena by providing flexible and comprehensive correlations (Perry, J. W., 1956).
A classification system performs three distinctive functions: (1) bibliothecal, arranging the physical location of items within a library, (2) bibliographical, organizing recorded knowledge within the documents, and (3) cognitive, focusing on identity of items interrelated within other items (Nitecki, A., 1988). The classificatory systems created by Harris and Dewey are based on Hegelian philosophy (Graziano, E. E., 1955).
The information explosion made classification schemes obsolete and also rendered inadequate the conventional interpretation of science, research, and their theories (Bennett, G., 1988).
Major processing changes in cataloging include a number of shifts in focus (1) from bibliographic to descriptive cataloging, (2) from the absolute to contextual truth, (3) from the idealistic concept of cataloging as an end in itself to a pragmatic evaluation of its consequences.
Cataloging rules emphasize the importance of the sufficiency of general cataloging principles (Gallagher, H. M., 1991) and are adjusted to local needs, not influenced by preferential, individual judgment; they aim at simplicity, clarity, and economy (Dunkin, P. S., 1973). The structure of the library catalog relates to the patron's knowledge of the subject searched and his understanding of library organization of recorded knowledge (Kochen, M., 1974a).
3.5.3 Valuational assertions.
Classification of documents is librarianship's major contribution to civilization in that it provides index and location to an ever-increasing number of records (Shores, L., 1958); together with information retrieval, they are useful as service and as methodology for other disciplines. As a facilitator in communicating information, library service is based on the value of dispersible character of information, methodology of facet classification, and techniques (Davies, R., 1981).
The shift in cataloging concepts from a perfectionistic to a pragmatic approach resulted in a change of focus from quality cataloging to its impact on library goals (Gallagher, H. M., 1991).
3.6 Communication.
3.6.1 Metaphysical definitions.
One of the purposes of communication is to convey ideas through patterns of sound or physical marks by evoking in the mind of the receiver of communication the ideas that correspond to those in the mind of the initiator of that communication (Nickerson, R. S., 1981).
The principles of communication theory address: (1) numerical relations between physical processes and what they intended, (2) statistical relations between information and its transmission as measures of uncertainty, and (3) noise, an uncontrolled event minimized by repetitions (Fairthorne, R. A., 1961).
An idea is not a metaphysical entity but a hypothesis formulated to solve a problem, 'if X, then Y' (e.g., if a library displays a book, it will be read by more people). Communicating ideas means communicating untested hypotheses (Levine, M. M., 1981).
3.6.2 Epistemological characteristics.
Informational society began with the invention of writing, collection and comparing of written records, and a library serving as an essential instrument in the communication processes (Traue, J. E., 1989).
Language developed in response to communication needs (Mead), as a chain of conditional reflexes (Skinner), or independently of any social needs for communication as a means for survival in an unpredictable environment (Miller, G. A., 1983b).
Major influences on communication were: (1) the absolutism of the 16th and the 17th centuries, (2) the libertarian rationalism and natural rights of the 18th and 19th centuries movement and (3) 20th-century social responsibility on one hand, with totalitarianism on the other. Libertarian theory calls for dedication to truth and objectivism; totalitarian theory uses communication to 'educate' people (Berninghause, D. K., 1972b).
The contemporary cultural revolution is a converse of Darwinism, as the cultural evolution in time (focus on information science) and in space (librarianship) (Blake, M. L., 1985).
Library communication differs from conventional communication patterns. It is presented as a threefold modality of a discourse interrelating the physical objective reality of the message, communicated through its carriers with the conceptual, subjective reality, perceived by the recipient of the message (Nitecki, J. Z., 1979b).
Communication means more than just moving information; information technology is not a message; form is not a content; the destination is more important than means of transport; electronics will not record compassion, and satellites will not communicate tolerance (Foskett, D. J., 1984).
Communication science is in search of a discipline; it is characterized by: (1) ethnocentrism, (2) self-contradictory conclusions, (3) a holistic approach to social and political cause-effect influences, (4) information retrieval predicated on inductive prediction of relevance, and (5) and heuristic method (Dervin, B. & M. J. Voight, 1984).
Library communication is limited by its one dimensionality and linearity (one theme at a time), its visual form (repetition not redundancy), its information threshold, its recall and its relevance. Information is communicated between two brains (of sender and receiver) and can never be fully retrieved by any system (Line, M. B., 1968).
The art of interpersonal-communication research is based on books, readers, and systems (Vickery, B. C., 1970). Words are the common medium of exchange, representing ideas, but are not themselves ideas (Anderson, H., 1957).
Conversation as an interactive communication between the user and the intermediary in the information-retrieval process implies: (1) a cooperative principle of conversational logic based on quantity of information (Paul Grice), its quality (true contribution), relations (relevance), manners (perspicuous), and (2) various theories in linguistics (Chomsky), linguistic logic (Lakoff's study of meaning), sociolinguistic interaction, cognitive psychology of the environmental and computational nature of language (Belkin, N. J., & A. Vickery, 1985).
Interactive communication is an important aspect of science considered as social science. Librarians ought to understand the present information requirements of individual scientists and anticipate their future needs. This applies especially to the scientific community for which the library can analyze information flow or use and generate information synthesis (Garvey, W. D., 1979).
Future society will evolve away from the formal communication patterns of the present. Paperless electronic communication will replace the library that is taken for granted in a print-on-paper format (Lancaster, F. W. & L .S. Smith, 1978).
3.7 Collection, Cooperation, Networks.
Although library collection is essential in librarianship, the discipline still lacks a satisfactory means for relating it to its use. The accessibility and availability of collections must be matched with their users' satisfaction (McGrath, W. C., 1985).
Division between access and ownership of resources should be put aside and the two issues addressed jointly, by cooperation between them. Librarians, publishers, and utilities operators should solve together the problems created by this dichotomy (Hoadley, I. B., 1991).
The cooperative role among libraries is based on the assumption that cooperation will provide more effective and efficient library services (Grundt, L., 1975). Philosophical principles of cooperation (working together for common objectives or to produce desired effects) imply sharing goals and coordinating common actions and attitudes. Cooperation is a means toward ends, distinguishing between activities and their objectives (Pond, K., & D. E. Buringame, 1984).
Resource sharing is a good regulating device in library collection, based on the notion that books that are lent to other libraries are in low demand and should be kept in the borrowing library until they are requested by another lending library (Gore, D., 1982).
Networking does not save money, break
down bureaucracy, or eliminate barriers between libraries, but
it simplifies and improves operations (Schuman, P. G., 1987).
And although it will reduce the value of local library collections,
it will increase the value of librarians; it will link people
to information anywhere, but it will also isolate individuals
physically (Carter, C. R., 1982).
3.8 Data-information-knowledge relations and transfer.
3.8.1 Metaphysical definitions.
Data, information, and knowledge are different stages of the same continuous process of integrating data to the already existing knowledge in an individual's mind (Nitecki, J. Z., 1984c). Definitions of data, information, and knowledge should distinguish between the levels and purposes of such definitions, the content in which the terms are used, and the roles they perform in a social setting (Wilson, T. D., 1981).
The datum is a statement, information, or a content; knowledge is a store of patterns and structures, comprehended by and integrated in people's mind (Bretz, R., 1971).
Knowledge is considered as a psychological content of a mind, new relations in logic, a source and validity in epistemology, its ultimate nature in ontology, and its arrangement, recall, preservation, and restoration in library classification (Ranganathan, S. R., 1951).
The concept of unified knowledge was expressed by a number of writers. Leibniz searched for universal and encyclopedic knowledge. Jawett, Sayers, and Ranganathan focused on universal bibliographic description and classification without using the scientific approach. Kochen proposed unification of knowledge based on wisdom. Shera suggested symbolic interactionism in social communication. Patrick Wilson focused on bibliographic research aiming at practical processes (Reyward, W. B., 1983b).
3.8.2 Epistemological characteristics.
In a triad 'data-information-knowledge' each component relates to different aspect of cognitive processes, and each is defined differently in different contexts (Machlup, F., 1983).
Data may be social, scientific, humanistic, or mainstream with different meaning and use (Geraci, D. & L. Langschied, 1991).
They are measured at four levels: (1) the entropy of answers, (2) weighted entropy in selection, (3) a syntactic and semantic measure of structuring, and (4) a dimensional reduction of data themselves (Hayes, R. M., 1991).
Data are considered unprocessed, given raw facts (empirical foundationalism), different from their derivative (indirect Rralism), or physical surrogates for knowledge (physicalistic reductionism). To be compatible, data and information must be of the same kind; to be accessible, they must be representable; and to be processed, they must lose the property of rawness (Hammarberg, R., 1981).
Knowledge is an awareness of reality, information is recorded knowledge, and data are unprocessed symbols. A diffusion of knowledge into social systems is influenced by: (a) a source of information, its credibility, trustworthiness and attractiveness; (b) the recency of communication: the kind of message communicated and the intelligence of the audience; and (c) unintentional social factors, such as behavior of other people and deindividualization which weakens the restrains against antisocial action (Newhouse, R. C., 1988).
Soviet writers distinguished among (a) knowledge as a reflection of society (a philosophical view), (b) a pragmatic approach (focusing on system's behavior), and (c) a semantics of text (Belkin, N. J., 1975).
Communication as an information process consists of sender-message-medium-receiver sequence, with a message received through information transfer. Common to all information processes is: (1) information engineering (designing the system), (2) information managements (setting mission, policies, and procedures), (3) information psychology (studying behavioral processes), and (4) sociology of information (studying information context) (Greer, R. C., 1987).
Information is a language vehicle of communication; data and precepts are sorted by brain into knowledge about reality, subject to constant change and verification. Information as a surrogate for knowledge interprets experienced phenomena and provides a reference points for knowledge (Farradane, J., 1981).
Librarians do not organize knowledge but classify it; information and knowledge are not physical entities; bibliographic information retrieval maximizes the probability of recalling a relevant document -- all are highly subjective practices (Brookes, B. C., 1982).
Information transfer is an interaction among users, knowledge, resources, and intermediary mechanisms (Belkin, N. J., 1984). The transfer of information to information theory is determined by the kind of research, time parameters, and levels of investigation (Stanoulov, N., 1979).
Value judgment of information transfer is based not on values inherent in the message, but on the receiver's perception of potential values, determined by information needs and the environmental factors (Nitecki, D. A., 1993).
3.9 Information Technology: Inquiry, search, transfer and retrieval of information.
3.9.1 General comments.
Information technology went through three revolutions: the invention of writing, the introduction of movable type, and the development of electronics. Each gradually increased the access to a variety of information. (Neustadt, R. M., 1981). The inventions of printing and the computer were major cognitive changes, democratizing technology by increasing accessibility to information. Printed books eliminated transcribers' errors, and computers allowed for manipulation of information. (De Mey, M., 1984). New technology creates new sociological and psychological crises, but it also provides the means for resolving them (Curras, E., 1984).
The development of environmental information services is related to one of the three modes of scientific and technical information transfer: (1) discipline-oriented (focus is on the total universe of knowledge), (2) mission-oriented (focus is on specialized, interdisciplinary knowledge), and (3) problem-oriented (focus is on social issues) (Neufeld, M. L., 1982).
Technology offers means for individualizing educational processes; the insight into technological operations provides understanding of how it can be controlled to serve society (Minnesota Educational Media Organization, 1985).
Technology is not a linear process; it will change some
aspects of librarianship, but will not eliminate it. The library, in addition to providing ready-made information, also makes available personal knowledge (enlightenment) that cannot be computerized. Research as a cumulative process limited to the latest information is applicable to natural sciences, while the humanities and social sciences express human values; hence literature is not obsolescent. Non-routine use of information requires creativity, which cannot be classified in advance, thus the fundamental problem of information retrieval is unsolved (Larsen, S., 1988).
Numerical calculations were older than Babbage's desk calculator, and they were followed by Bush differential analyzer (Fairthorne, R. A., 1969). The procognitive model based on a dialogue between a user and the system anticipated the present expert system (Licklider, J. C. R., 1965).
Technology has both positive and negative impacts on society. It stimulates the processing and use of information, but it also erodes the fabric of human society by magnifying social alienation (Voloshin, M., 1988). Its impact on librarianship includes: (1) increased publication and concomitant pressure on library processes, (2) facilitation of a storage problem by computers, but also increasing cost of operations, and (3) integration of library services with parental organization, strengthening libraries' ability to compete with commercial agencies (Cummings, M. M., 1986).
Technology offer means for individualizing educational processes, and the insight into technological operations provides understanding of how it can be controlled to serve society (Minnesota Educational Media Organization, 1985).
New technologies significantly changed library activities in (a) storage of records (changed formats), (b) their distribution (electronic devices), (c) technical processes (computerized), and (d) bibliographic tools (computer catalogs). These changes made the library completely interdependent with other information institutions (Haas, W. J., 1988).
A historiography is a graphic display of citation data that show the key scientific events, their chronology interrelationships and relative importance. It serves as an outline for a history of a discipline (Garfield, E., 1973).
Typographical fixity is a basic prerequisite for the rapid advancement of learning, illustrated by changing reading habits and the introduction of reference services that followed invention of printing machine and duplicative services (Eisentstein, E. L., 1968).
The philosophy of operational research is based on a dictum that philosophy of science without history of science is empty, while history of science without philosophy of science is blind (Miser, H. J., 1991).
The library environment reflects a conflict between technocrats, who enthusiastically endorse innovations in libraries, and Luddites who violently oppose it. The conflict can be resolved by redefining the scope of the discipline and its mission (Ennis, P. H., 1962).
Post-industrial society is characterized by (1) conflict between elitist techno-economic structure and populist culture, (2) a cultural shift away from reading to a visual format, (3) the significance of computers' impact on information-manipulation. (4) an information-dependent society, and (5) the nature of the library's change from a passive storage center to an information and knowledge center (Musman, K., 1978).
Evaluation of technology can be (a) quantitative macro- evaluation of the efficiency of system performance, and (b) analytical and diagnostical micro-evaluation of reasons for satisfying information needs. Bibliometrics moves away from subjective-use studies by concentrating on past user behavior, reflected in the frequency of citations (Lancaster, F. W. & C. Cleverdon, 1977).
As a result of new technology, the library may become (1) a user-subsidized warehouse providing seating facilities, (2) a computer-centered switching system, or (3) a symbiosis of people and communication systems, providing mediation between users and knowledge in and outside of a library (Taylor, R. S., 1973).
The adoption of new technology is not yet reflected in the philosophy of user services. The self-service model is still in use, with patrons using the library for information and service delivery only (Summers, F. W., 1991).
Librarians demonstrate a lack of interest in adapting the electronic book, although it will become the future carrier of information; electronic publishing should be influenced by library related needs (Robinson, C., 1992).
3.9.2 Artificial intelligence.
Intellectual issues are created by a complexity of scientific beliefs which polarize intellectual communities. For example, among the dichotomies impacting on the development of artificial intelligence are (a) a shift from symbolic logic as a thinking process to a device for mathematical analyzes, (b) a distinction drawn between nature of knowledge (epistemological) and the process of implementing it (heuristic), and (c) the separation of philosophy from empirical studies and psychology from philosophy (Newell, A., 1983).
3.9.3 Automation.
It is important that librarians give more attention to automation dedicated to the social significance of libraries and reading (Simpson, D. J., 1963). Automation changed librarians' focus: from logic and reason as irrelevant, to logical positivistic operationalism (machine-manipulated acts). Librarianship becomes dehumanized by a shift from a man-centered to a machine-centered mode of operation (Grazziano, E. E., 1967).
We see deficiencies in libraries but do not know their hidden purposes, hence we should not automate what we don't understand (Line, M. B., 1968).
3.9.4 Computers and computer science.
The computer is used for (1) bibliographic control, (2) document reproduction and distribution, and (3) information retrieval. The knowledge explosion refers to utilitarian knowledge, while the technical focus is on productivity (Martin, L., 1968). The computer accelerates cognitive processes and augments them (Zwass, V., 1983).
Computers are ignorant: they can differentiate but not interpret. Until instructed how to do it, they can hardly identify data (Fairthorne, R. A., 1973).
Computer science is not a physical science and has little to do with computers. It develops large, manmade systems designed to control complexity by reducing a number of interconnections (Moses, J., 1983). It overlaps with information science in the artificial processing of information; it also relates to other disciplines by providing conceptual models, sharing areas and methods of inquiry, and influencing computers in practically every discipline (Zwass, V., 1983).
3.9.5 Information inquiry, search, and retrieval.
The major problem in information science is how to know in advance if the desired information or knowledge exists and can be retrieved (Fink, D. G., 1976).
Information inquiry is serendipitous; each inquiry is unique, evaluating one document at the time, with previous evaluation affecting the following inquiry (Carr, D., 1981).
Analysis of the subject content of documents identifies search possibilities; synthesis of the retrieved documents confirms the degree of completeness of the retrieved processes (Friis-Hansen, J. B., 1986).
Searching processes for information in library collection and in the educational processes are constrained by a limited rate of information flow into human sense-channels (Heilprin, L.B. & F. L. Goodman, 1965).
Information retrieval is a tool of recorded discourse, but it does not take part in discourse itself. It is evaluated in terms of the accessibility of documents and the sucess of librarians' assistance (Fairthorne, R. A., 1968). It consists of four stages: (1) monadic (information is a self-contained entity), (2) structural (information is a classified complex structure), (3) contextual (information removes ambiguity), and (4) cognitive (information is a knowledge representation) (Ingwersen, P., 1984).
Scientific information retrieval is based on the assumptions that: (a) it is cognitive (information is mediated as a system of categories and concepts), (b) common knowledge structure is provided by the paradigm theories, and (c) Popper's physical-subjective-objective worlds are interactive (Ingwersen, P., 1984). Information storage and retrieval influence methods of creating and managing records by facilitating recovery of all pertinent records (Lipetz, B. A., 1966).
The 'transfer coefficient' expresses a need for measuring the objective reality of the output of the system to the users' perception of what is relevant. Relevance of information retrieval may be pertinent but not necessarily useful or significant (Kent, A., 1977).
The psychology of learning and memory can assist librarians in organizing their material by suggesting that: (a) retrieval strategy is similar to retrieval from memory, (b) there is a maximum amount of information that an individual can handle at a time, (c) information should be organized by its complexity, and (d) unrelated words are sorted into categories (Najarian, S. E., 1980).
The modern scientist is not a scholar but a researcher who depends on the access to information (Daniel, E. H.,1982). An effective information-retrieval system depends on an active partnership between an information scientist and a subject expert. It is based on the assumptions that: (1) knowledge is dependent on knower and social context, (2) a retrieval process involves shared understanding between the librarian and the patron, and (3) an adequate index allows the patron to develop his/her own perspectives (Watson, L. E. et al., 1973).
The ambiguity of the concept 'relevance' rules out a satisfactory evaluation of information retrieval. The irrelevant document may stimulate new research, and trial and error may enhance the correctibility of the requests. Hence the meaning of relevance is in the context of the documents served (Swanson, D. R., 1976).
Knowledge can be public yet undiscovered because of an incomplete retrieval system, increasing the scope of published information and limited indexing. Hence, information retrieval is always uncertain and openended (Swanson, D. R., 1986).
The improved controllability of information results in improved capability for computation, storage, and telecommunication of information. At present, information retrieval is limited to the retrieval of documents only (Koenig, M. E. D., 1987).
3.9.6 Systems.
A philosophy of systems deals with problems centered on the concept of the system, and it is distinguished from system theory, which is a science of systems based on mathematical interpretations (Mortazavian, H., 1983a).
A system is an ongoing process; a modern system is also information based. What is important, however, is not so much the information processed, but the information about what is processed. The new library system is information-based, controlled by information-processing computers, aiming at efficient information retrieval for patrons (Kilgour, G. G., 1966).
Systems theory, although not formally stated, was already practiced by Romans and medieval libraries in a form of dissemination of knowledge through systems of networks. Today's library system is similar, although more complex, fulfilling the same essential function as a cultural base of society (Smith, J., 1977).
An information system is a special kind of relation between input and output. It cannot be modeled without adequate information about the inputs, outputs, locations, and processing of books in libraries. There is no theory to determine what is the minimum amount of information needed in the model (Mortazavian, H., 1983).
An expert system is interpreted as: (1) data bases (facts), (2) knowledge bases (rules for comparison and interpretation), and (3) an inference engine (action taken on situation-specific facts). Natural language interface permits human operators to communicate with a computer. Both the expert system and the computer are major components of artificial intelligence (Mason, R. M., 1985).
A systems approach to library management ignores the service aspect, although service is the main reason for librarianship (Wenge, K., 1982).
3.10 Neutrality.
3.10.1 Metaphysical definitions.
The meaning of neutrality is determined by its historical context (Birdsall, W. F., 1988), and partiality for or against something is defined in the social frame of reference (Berelson, 1939).
Neutrality reflects reality and opposes censorship (Gore, D., 1969), and it breeds political inequality (Gremmels, G.S., 1991).
3.10.2 Epistemological characteristics.
Berninghauser's hypotheses distinguish between librarians' non-involvement in professional issues and their involvement as citizens. This is criticized by contending that librarians as members of society are directly involved in fundamental social issues. The former approach reflects 1940s - 1960s 'identity-through-vocation' syndrome. The latter reflects social consciousness, the 'identity-through-social responsibility' syndrome (Dunbar, G., 1972).
The proponents of library neutrality argue that the very concept of a librarian as a social advocate contradicts American tradition. Free access to all ideas implies a collection and services that refer to all issues, pro and con (Oboler, E., 1977).
Librarians as librarians can have no religion, no politics, and no morals. The library must be impartial, open, available to all, objective, and enthusiastic about the public's use of its resources and services (McColvin, L. R., 1949). This principle allows librarians to exist for all politics, all religions, and all morals (J. D. Cowley in: Foskett, D. J., 1962, Emery, R., 1971).
Library service is directional; it points to the sources, but does not provide answers, i.e., it is neutral (not judging or interpreting the values of the sources). However, it is responsible for providing real and correct information (Fayen, E. G., 1986). Neutral questioning strategy in reference is to find out what the patron wants, based on the sense-making model (Dervin, B., & P. Dewdney, 1986). Librarians as professionals should not take a stand on social issues that are unrelated to librarianship (White, H. S., 1990).
The librarian's mission is the problem-centered duty to provide material which for the sake of offering information to all, may offend some patrons and even some librarians (Gore, D., 1973). However, involvement of the public library in solving social issues changes it into different institution (Becker, H. S., 1965).
Neutrality is often interpreted as a "do nothing" attitude. The dilemma is in distinguishing between patrons' perceptions of what they want and what they really ought to have (resulting from patrons' lack of information about the material wanted) (Carnovsky, L., 1940). Partiality implies proper advice based on known facts (Berelson, B., 1939), but it also is seen as (a) an undemocratic mistrust of an individual's ability to make his own decision, by affirming the finality of any argument (Fry, B. M., 1939); and (b) as a choice negatively made, based on misinformation and insufficient awareness of social change
(Scandrett, M. S., 1939).
On the other hand, many librarians oppose neutrality. In a pluralistic society, the concept of library neutrality contradicts librarians' obligations to serve all people and provide them whit what they want by selecting only the material restricted by community standards (Prokop, M., 1983).
The opposition to library involvement in social issues is considered as 'reactionary, hypocritical, and intellectually unsound' (Buschman, J., and others, 1994).
Originally people did not want to be told what to read, expecting librarians' neutrality; today they ask for guidance in the choice of material relevant to their needs (Hatt, F., 1963).
Librarians are never neutral but always impartial. Neutrality implies no position on basic ethical issues (Foskett,J.D., 1962).
The nature of library service requires politization of library involvement, especially in the area of freedom of information (Green, L. V., 1991).
Aristotle maintained that inequality arises when two equals are treated unequally, or when two unequals are treated equally. This implies that some people may be more equal because of their political power. This prevents the library from being neutral in disseminating survival information effectively, since politics often determines who gets what (Hennessy, J. A., 1981a).
Librarianship of politics and politics of librarianship are closely related, operating within the state and community environments. Both are essential for the survival of libraries (Hennessy, J. A., 1981b).
A nonpolitical approach weakens public support of library services (Shavit, D., 1986), and library neutrality means support of the established order (Mole, A., 1979). Furthermore, emotional neutrality in dealing with patrons weakens librarians ulterior motives and results in their disinterest in the outcome of information transfer (Smith, G. M., 1973).
Some philosophers feared written words (Socrates, Plato, Ortega). Librarians should follow skeptics' philosophy of accommodating all dogma but acceding to none (Gore, D., 1970).
Some suggest that involvement in social issues should be limited to the areas of librarians' social responsibilities defined by library goals and objectives (Uricchio, W., 1994).
The debate also relates to the principles of intellectual freedom requiring full access to records (Berninghousen, D.K., 1972a) and involvement in social issues by providing access to all viewpoints. Intellectual freedom is a major library principle, although it is sometimes criticized for excusing neutrality, thus in effect supporting the establishment (McKenny, M. & E. Ericson, 1972). Does the meaning of the principle of intellectual freedom cover all viewpoints, including politically incorrect? (Manley, W., 1993).
The resolution of the neutrality-advocacy controversy will determine the future of the philosophy of librarianship (Berninghausen, D. K., 1972a).
3.10.3 Valuational assertion.
Deontology emphasizes professional obligations to the institutional objectives, aiming at the library ideal of impartiality in serving a pluralistic society (Iben, I., 1962). Others claim that professional neutrality is irrelevant, since librarians deal with the values of others, not their own (Goode, W. J., 1961).
Political involvement is guided by a moral framework of values (Crowe, L., & S. H. Anthes, 1988). Value-neutrality invites political intervention and partiality (Blanke, H. T., 1989) and may result in a domination by other political and economic powers. Librarianship must define its values in political terms, by cultivating the sense of social responsibility to provide free and equal access to information (Blanke, H. T., 1989).
Librarians are not neutral; they just suppress their feelings as an act of ethical discipline. They should not take a stand on social issues unrelated to librarianship (White, H. S., 1990).
3.11 Management.
3.11.1 Metaphysical definitions.
Management is an amalgam of many disciplines. It consists of form and function, a community context, a normative expectation of action, an open-ended management style, humanistic values, a predetermined and hierarchical operational model, a participative approach, and technical and interpretational skills (Hannabuss, S., 1988). Its definition includes: (1) a process aiming at accomplishment of common goals with available economic resources, (2) staffing, (3) planning, (4) controlling, (5) a system of authority in decision-making and in determining job structures, and (6) leadership (Massie, J. L., 1987).
The conceptual framework of management consists of understanding attitudes in communication and common sense in the interpretation of relations, by using a descriptive rather than a prescriptive approach (DeHart, F. E., 1979).
Library management is based on either responsive or demonstrative philosophy, illustrating the diversity and divergence between innovative and traditional interpretations of the discipline. The responsive approach is the catalyst for change, and the demonstrative approach preserves the status quo (Webb, T. D., 1987).
3.11.2 Epistemological nature.
Major changes in American culture were agricultural, manufacturing, and service-oriented; all still have an important impact on the culture. Management of information serving all the above segments of society is difficult to define because value of information is subjective, situation- and time - dependent; and its 'value-added' component is difficult to measure (Duncan, J. W., 1988).
Major themes in library literature discussing library management include: (1) the formal character of library organization, and (2) informal management of staff performance. Bureaucracy and professionalism are similar in requiring impersonal detachment, competence, and application of standards. They differ in bureaucratic authority by focusing on official position rather than on skill and competence, and by professional authority stressing expertise, abstract knowledge, self-governance, professional standards, an ethical code, and service orientation (Lynch, B., 1979).
Management of libraries relates to general theories and procedures for constructing the work of organization. It is based on sociological and psychological studies of human relations and motivation (Rosenberg, J. A., 1994). It is not an end in itself. Librarians should be competent and sensitive to changes and perform educational functions by utilizing available resources (Hookway, H. I., 1974).
The library is administered hierarchically, not by subject. It defines librarians and library units by their functions, a system which is necessitated by a large single catalog. The introduction of computers will result in change in library structure to the matrix organization and, in small libraries, to participative management (Altman, A. E., 1988).
Participative management is an ill-defined concept of power-sharing with employees but only partially sharing responsibilities (Dickinson, D. W., 1978). It is a delegative process, which at times abdicates managerial responsibilities. Consultative management is based on employees' input into managerial decisions. Some library managers follow either of these approaches with no resources or plans for success; the result is liberal management, which allows employees the freedom to choose their own style, as long as the outcome is acceptable (White, H. S., 1985).
A library management system consists of object-handling services and data-handling systems. Both are interrelated in an information system, which is responsible for the generation, collection, storage, manipulation, and delivery of data (aiming at simplicity) and objects (books focusing on convenience) (Heiliger, E. M. & P. B. Henderson, 1971). The object system includes (a) books' convenience, (b) processing of things about data, and (c) aiming at simplicity of numerical and alphabetical systems that convey complex and abstract ideas (Heiliger, E. M. & P. B. Henderson, 1971), and bibliographic tools (De Gennaro, R., 1982).
Librarians should generate political power among influential friends who will take risks on the library's behalf. They should ask for a broader constituency, making a library an indispensable institution in decision making (White, H. S., 1986). They should not become principal managers of all information, but continue to be a link between researchers and bibliographic tools (DeGennaro, R., 1982).
Political and social forces have a direct impact on planning, decision-making, and accountability; cooperation is admirable, but its difficulties are formidable (Beasley, K. E., 1974).
Management of information is a learning process. Important features are (a) the notion of organization and people's behavior, (b) the concept of change as a permanent state, and (c) a reward system that requires information (Jellis, J., 1988). Information science should have its own theory independent of management theory (Diener, R. A. V., 1989).
There is anticipation of an increased competition between libraries (whose end-purpose is to serve published material to patrons) and commercial publishers (considering publishing as a means to business goals). Online access will increase direct author-reader relations, limiting the commercial market but also making difficult the evaluation of individual needs. The library's unique position lies in its direct service to an individual patron, and librarians should enter the scholarly publishing field in order to preserve that uniqueness (Atkinson, R., 1993).
Marketing principles are applicable to librarianship, because the library, by providing needed information, is involved in marketing it. Marketing is distinguished from selling: the former expresses the needs of patrons; the latter expresses the satisfaction of the seller or the librarian as a provider of information (Niekerk, R. V., 1985).
Marketing with strategic planning provides a practical and philosophical foundation for library information services. The shift in marketing is from selling to satisfying the client, and from profit to exchange. In the library a distinction is made between motivated library users and non-motivated non-users (Weingand, D. E., 1984).
Management departments in business schools lack a theoretical base; the notion of economics of information is proposed by considering information as a resource similar to land, labor, and capital, although its value depends on who uses it (information cannot be used up, but it can be obsolete) (Turner, J. A., 1986).
The philosophy of business-cost recovery contradicts libraries' free access philosophy. The computer lessens the disparity in the access to information between haves, and have-have nots, but it also increases the disparity between peoples ability to pay for that access (Blake, F. M., & E. L. Perlmutter, 1977).
Management measurement of library operations is affected by: (1) the difficulty of controlling users' behavior in determining library benefits, (2) the inappropriateness of social, spiritual, and economic benefits in measuring immediate library performance, (3) Ranganathan's laws that identify services to be measured, (4) Mooer's law stating that more difficult information retrieval will be less often used, and (5) the general law of diminishing returns, illustrated by the Zipf distribution law (in the text, a small number of selected words occurs most frequently), his principle of least effort, and Bradford's distribution law (Lancaster, F. W., 1977).
3.12 Media.
The philosophy of multimedia is defined as service to the public through accountability and enhancement of human life by effective management of resources of knowledge in the context of multimedia. Its purposes are determined by the functions and individual areas of activities; i.e., the purpose is translated into goals subdivided into measurable objectives of validity and feasibility (Hicks, W. B., & A. M. Tillin, 1977).
A pseudo-philosophical discussion of virtual reality does not contribute to the understanding of electronic media (Heim, M., 1993).
3.13 Reading.
3.13.1 Metaphysical definitions.
Reading is a purposive, selective, and anticipatory process based on the comprehension and psycho-linguistic interpretation of written language, rather than a process of decoding of symbols. Readers are in control in the former interpretation, the text in the latter process (Smith, F., 1987). It is an interactive operation, determined by reader-text relations and the reader's knowledge of the book-subject read (Afflerbach, P., 1985). It can be (a) devotional (satisfying spiritual and emotional needs), (b) cultural (as a goal in itself), (c) achievemental (personal enhancement), and (d) compensatory (recreational); but above all reading is a means for communication. Public library function is not to spread knowledge but to develop personality by reading (Landherer, B., 1957).
It is a truism to say that reading is a unique unrepeatable process, expressing the meaning contained in the book and interpreted by its reader, which varies with different instances of reading the same material. It adds nothing to the understanding of the reading processes (Gerard, D., 1983).
3.13.2 Epistemological characteristics.
Through history, reading was interpreted as: (a) an act of self-improvement (Protestant ethics), (b) a means for the diffusion of knowledge, and (c) as a source of information for recreational and educational purposes (Downs, M. W., 1969).
The meaning of a text is a metaphysical concept, a composite image of various associations between signs, words, and thoughts (Nitecki, J. Z., 1986). It is extracted from reading and 'ready- made' in other media (e.g., TV) (Nell, V., 1988). A shift in the theory from 'word' to 'image' requires better understanding of the impact of new communication symbols on traditional concept of literacy (Gerard, D. E., 1975).
The reading processe varies: it can be easy (informational) or difficult to understand (technical); it can be learned structurally, analytically (from the whole to its parts), interpretatively, synthetically (from the parts to the whole), or critically (evaluating the meaning) (Dunnett, W., 1984). It involves three basic elements: (1) a process (the physiological and psychological science of reading), (2) the context (the sociology of reading) and (3) the content (the philosophy of thinking processes). Understanding the reading process is based on a model of brain divided into a foreground area, containing causal relations extracted from text (text- stimulated), and a background area (containing previously acquired knowledge). The two linked together produce trails of mental reasoning, called text comprehension (Corriveau, J. R., 1987).
A distinction is made between scientific and emotive reading (Richards), reading with or without purpose, general and serious reading (Savage), information retrieval, and storekeeping of reading material (Mills) (Hatt, F., 1961), differentiating among 'demand', 'want', and reading 'requirement' (Roberts, N., 1975).
Reading is not a skill but an experience, which is subject to biases: (a) 'of presentation' (learning focused on immediacy is often obsolete or false by the time something is printed), (b) 'of publicity' (publicizing private communications) and (c) 'of statistics' (one can measure quantity but not quality of reading) (Boorstin, D. J., 1982b).
The sociology of reading is an inseparable part of librarianship, studying social, political, and methodological aspects of reading processes (Karetzky, S., 1982).
Private awareness includes a sense of mission and belief in the social, economic, and personal utility of reading. Public awareness is an understanding of why reading skills are essential tools of leadership (Mathews, V. H., 1981).
The 19th-century metaphors of the ladder and of eating focus on active text and a passive reader. This focus should be reversed to stress relationships between active reader and passive text, with readers, not librarians, being the judges of the value of text content to them (Ross, C. S., 1987).
The 'eating' metaphor of reading is a simplification of reading habits and a caricature of relations between people and mass media culture. It focuses on consumption rather than production; people don't 'eat' mass culture as given, but modify it for their own needs (Radway, J. A., 1986).
Since people often don't know what they want, the librarian should use Madison Avenue techniques to persuade the patrons to read books (Parris, J., 1958).
School librarianship stresses the choice of reading needs by the individual patron, especially since reading is less important nowadays than in the past and has no absolute value; it must be related to individual needs for facts, to thinking processes, and to imagination,
which creates esthetic satisfaction (Dyer, C., 1969).
Plato was critical of writing because it offered information before a discourse (i.e., instruction did not precede reading). However, because of the expansion of reading material, verbal teaching (dialogue) must be supplemented by skills of finding and retrieving relevant reading material, which is the major goal of a public library (Gray, E., 1986).
Ease of reading accustoms readers not to think for themselves about the material they have read. Accordingly, librarians should serve as filters between readers and books by eliminating 'bad' books (Ortega, J. G., 1935).
Schools of literary criticism are based on different components of reading: (1) the Geneva School stresses reader reactions to authors' experiences; (2) the School of Practical Criticism focuses on text without reference to the authors' purpose, and (3) the New Reader School points to readers' expectations as they impact on the literariness of the text; the readers' response is the meaning of the text (Nell, V., 1988).
3.13.3 Valuational assertions.
Esthetic response in reading is determined by the relationship between the text and the reader who brings to it perceptive and imaginative interpretation. It is stimulated by the text, and its reception or reaction depends on the reader's judgment (Iser, W., 1978). It is a dialectic relationship between the text and the reader and their interaction. It is also esthetic because it involves imagination and perception of values on the part of the reader (Iser, W., 1978).
The notion that the librarian ought to provide the reader with what he needs rather than what he wants is in conflict with the view that opposes superimposition of librarians' view on patrons, considering subjective service unethical (similarl to physicians' responsibility for choosing treatment for the patient) (Prokop, M., 1983).
The significance and value of good reading justify government support of public libraries (Dewey, M., 1898). It is important to defend ephemeral publications and their value in public library collections since current fiction will attract more patrons to the library. Reading does no harm and librarians should select books appropriate for patrons' needs (Putnam, H., 1915).
Reader-centered ethics stresses use of library resources as tools in providing cultural reading (Hatt, F., 1961).