Nitecki, Joseph Z. 1995. Philosophical Aspects of Library Information Science in Retrospect. Volume 2 of The Nitecki Trilogy . Also Available as ERIC 381 162.

2.0 The domain of Library Information Science (LIS).

2.1 Philosophy of the domain.

2.1.1 General comments.

In this section various comments on the philosophy of librarianship or its aspects are summarized and classified. The task is arduous because many authors do not follow the distinction between terms such as library (the physical entity), librarianship (the profession) or library science (the domain). They do not directly refer to the philosophical differentiation between the metaphysical, epistemological, or valuational aspects of their arguments, nor, of course, to the metalibrary distinction between conceptual, contextual, and procedural levels.

2.1.1.1 Need for a philosophy.

Formulation of the philosophy of the American public library was slow in coming, since the initial interest lay in developing specific library objectives and their implementation (Wilson, L. R., 1938). The lack of philosophical insight was evident in library literature which emphasized (a) differences rather than similarities among various issues, (b) purely empirical responses to problems rather than their anticipation, and (c) use of an inductive approach based on evidence and reductionism (Foskett, D. J., 1974a).

The absence of satisfactory philosophical analyses of the essence of librarianship is still a handicap (Wilson, Patrick, 1986): (1) the mission of the public library vacillates between educational and entertainment roles; (2) hazy ethics is applied in the selection policies and services (Roedde, W. A., 1957); (3) functions and practices of librarianship lack accepted principles (Khurshid, A., 1976); and (4) poorly defined bases for philosophy of librarianship weaken library social status (Slight, O., 1988), while consideration of library science as a service minimizes its professional role (Wei, A., 1979).

Although the traditional library can do without philosophy by using customs, routines, and guidelines, a progressive library cannot rely on such principles and must be directed by ideas, which form a philosophy of education (Houle, C. O., 1946). There is a need for a pragmatic philosophy of librarianship that would provide political control for library operations (Vagianos, L., 1973).

2.1.1.2 Historical background.

Modern American philosophy of librarianship began with the development of the sociology of librarianship at the University of Chicago Library School in early 1930s. The focus shifted from political emphases (1945-50), to the study of linguistic methods (1950-60), followed by application of mathematics (1960-70), Ranganathan's Five Laws, and social epistemology (1970-80) (Whitehead, J. M., 1980).

The process was influenced by (a) the Platonic idealism of Butler, Haines, Powel, Richardson, and Sayers; (b) the Aristotelian sociological research and methodology of Shera and Shores; (c) the professionalism of Melvin Dewey; (d) the administrative viewpoints of Naude, Durie, Panizzi, and Putnam; (e) the educational concerns of Foskett, Orr and Botasso; (f) classificatory studies made by Ranganathan; (g) the individualism of Broadfield, and (h) metaphysical models generated by Wright and Nitecki (McCrimmon, B., 1994). In the last decade, the fast-developing discipline of information science expanded the philosophical scope of librarianship notably.

The views of 19th century liberal, progressive philosophy were represented by L. R. McColvin, Broadfield, and L. Clark, who considered the library as a secular missionary institution contributing to the education and enlightenment of selected patrons, not mass culture (Benge, R. C., 1957). The philosophy was also influenced by D. Waples's pragmatic empiricism, B. Berelson's behavioral approach, and P. Butler's humanistic viewpoints (Terbille, Ch., J., 1992).

In other countries the history of library philosophy can be understood only in the context of their political system, such as the Marxist ideological definition of librarianship in the old Soviet system (Rovelstad, M., 1974). In that ideology, library philosophy was determined by political motives and objectives, and it was subordinated to ideological and economic needs of the totalitarian system (Abramov, K. I. & V. V. Skvortsov, 1978).

2.1.1.3 Perceptions of library philosophy.

Writings in the philosophy of librarianship are influenced directly or indirectly by major philosophical schools. Plato and Socrates believed in the paternalistic absolute-value viewpoint. The importance of Thomism to individuals lies in stressing self-mastery and self-fulfillment. Existential philosophy focuses on personality of individuals. Pragmatism maintains that everything is relative to the nature of the society. Behaviorism is deterministic vis-a-vis human behavior. Logical positivism is an empirical study of the limitations of language. Analytical philosophy focuses on the relativism of human conduct. Scientific humanists maintain that science is an instrument of progress, and humanism a source of inspiration. Dialectical materialism is preferred for scientific and technical approaches (Staveley, R., 1964).

George Ticknow perceived the philosophy of librarianship as based on the belief that (a) each person is perfectible, (b) books are means toward intellectual perfection, and (c) the library should provide books free to educate common people in the image of the best person and to supply books for elite patrons. Carnegie was a rigid moralist, expecting the library to have an indirect impact on order, stability, and economic growth of the society (Harris, M., 1973). Georg Leyh's philosophy of librarianship was based on humanistic and scholarly purposes free of ideological or practical influences (Dosa, M. L., 1974). The concept of a philosophy of librarianship itself is sometimes considered synonymous with the definition of library itself (Foster, M., 1979).

Although the philosophy of librarianship expresses social goals as means toward social ends, it must also conform with each individual's own philosophy of life. Each patron is a unique individual interpreting for himself the library materials (Broadfield, A., 1949). In some cases, the personal philosophy of librarianship may also reflect librarians' desire for respectability by glorifying their custodial function and their need for professional identity by falsely fusing library objectives with its attributes (Peirce, P., 1951).

Three views illustrate the outlook on the philosophy of librarianship: (1) R. H. Hayes feels that information science will become a theoretical foundation of librarianship, based on the notion that the records of bibliographical resources constitute a total system; (2) R. H. Parker sees two conflicts in philosophy created by a preference for direct access to books and a consideration of bibliographical guides as the best ways of accessing collections, both being the result of inadequacy of bibliographic control; and (3) G. W. King maintains that the complexity of the structural nature of library information reflects the complexity of the language (Hayes, R. N. et al., 1964).

(a) What the library philosophy ought to be.

A philosophy of librarianship should focus on defining the purposes of the discipline. One of them ought to be the promotion of the unity of knowledge, minimizing the science-humanism antagonism by public-library focus on general culture and by special libraries' concentration on science-related collections and services (Foskett, D. J., 1964). It should be based on professional practice and ethics which do not conflict with personal philosophy of librarians (Haines, H. E., 1946; Staveley, R., 1964). As a philosophy of service, it should relate to the control of information utility and social implications of value-oriented activities (Horn, S., 1973), and provide direction, purpose, and commitment to national cooperative networks, equal access, protection of the rights of the authors and publishers, readers' privacy, intellectual freedom, and maximum political autonomy, notwithstanding necessary governmental support (National Commission on Library and Information Science, 1974). The ideology of librarianship must be replaced by a philosophy of action aiming at getting additional financial support. Philanthropy has ended, and librarians cannot depend entirely on support by others (Orman, O., 1935).

A philosophy of librarianship should also (a) be inclusive and pluralistic, not expected to choose between the technological focus on change and the humanistic focus on knowledge, accommodating instead both approaches (Rosenblum, J., 1981); (b) reexamine library functions in terms of changing patrons need (Carter, D., 1981); (c) formulate metaphysical belief about realities dealt with by distinguishing between ideas (formal), data (physical), factual knowledge about data, and formal knowledge about ideas (Wright, H. C., 1982a); (d) reflect metaphysical assumptions of a librarian qua librarian that extend beyond himself to servicing individuals' and society's professional needs (Ortega's mission) (McConnell, J. Ch., 1992); (e) mirror and guide the activities developed by M. Dewey's practice (Wilson, L. R., 1936), (f) integrate various tasks within and between libraries by identifying common denominators (Iben, I., 1936), (g) explain the significance of the book and define the library in terms of human behavior, the librarian's loyalty to truth, justice, and beauty (Butler, P., 1945); and (h) relate to community needs and standards of performance, avoiding overemphasis of library practice (Carnovsky, L. & E. W. McDiarmid, 1934).

The base for the philosophy should be William James's pragmatism, promoting workable principles that would produce results based on moral, intellectual, and logical approaches (Kerr, W., 1920), and on Gandhi's philosophy of a pragmatic democracy that entails librarians' involvement in providing free library services to all (Mittal, R. L., 1969).

A new discipline ('studiology)' ought to be developed: a kind of general science concentrating on the study itself, based on information needed by individual disciplines and explaining what they study (Wright, H. C., 1975, 1978). It ought to be a scholarly domain with a unique focus on relations between social needs for information and printed knowledge. Such a discipline can be established only by developing a philosophy that would define areas of human experience related to librarianship, and by legitimating its user-driven system designated to meet patrons' cognitive needs (Wilkinson, N. J., 1983).

(b) The functions of library philosophy.

In general, philosophy is a search for underlying causes and principles of reality; it is useful in making a choice between alternatives (Downs, M. W., 1969).

In librarianship, it interrelates the scopes of library and information science in a form of a communication model, by identifying several relations between the source-medium-language-purpose and the receiver of the communicated message (Pratt, A. D., 1982). It provides interpretation, which relates abstract knowledge through physical carriers of recorded knowledge to library patrons (Wright, H. C., 1985b).

Expressed as action, library philosophy can be instrumental in the development of patrons' perceptions and library responses to them (Colson, J. C., 1983). The philosophical framework for bibliographic instruction incorporates metaphysical and metaphorical aspects of the discipline (Engle, M. O., 1986).

However, library philosophy is not universally accepted because of its overemphasis on the library as an institution (Czopek, P., 1984). The conflict between theory and practice slows the formulation of the philosophical synthesis of librarianship.

Four approaches to philosophy of librarianship are identified:

(1) actional, discarding theory in favor of practice,
(2) organismic, subordinating techniques to principles,
(3) naturalistic, maintaining that principles evolve from library practice into theory, and
(4) reflexive, stressing changing functions with changing social conditions of libraries (Rao, R. K., 1961).
Two competing practical approaches are (1) collection-preservation--oriented storehouse philosophy focusing on developing resources, and (2) service-communication--oriented philosophy stressing patrons' needs in the use of resources (Miller, G., 1981).

Library and Information Science lack a universally accepted philosophy, its 'building blocks' and methodology (Whitehead, J. M., 1980). It is criticized for focusing on linguistic analyses rather than on everyday problems (Duckett, R. J., 1986).

Doubts about the existence of a library philosophy are expressed in a number of ways. (a) Some writers claim that philosophy cannot exist for secondary activities, such as those performed in libraries. The present philosophy of librarianship focuses instead on purposes, ideals, and functions, providing no solution to library problems. An empirical and theoretical approach should replace the philosophical one (Emery, R., 1971). (b) Others maintain that there is no autonomous philosophy of librarianship, only a philosophy of life as it applies to librarianship; there are, however, principles of quality that determine library support of its community's needs, culture, and spiritual standards. Philosophical ideas must be translated into political action, subject to review by public opinion (Haugh, W. S., 1953). (c) Still others argue that although such a philosophy can exist, it is not found anywhere, and there is no one philosopher of librarianship in America today (Wright, H. C., 1977).

Those who accept the existence of library philosophy criticize it for a variety of reasons. (1) It has little meaning because of its inclusiveness, value-obsolescence, and reliance on other disciplines (Harley, J., 1954). (2) The all-embracing scope of librarianship makes its philosophy too vast to be compressed into one statement that would reflect a social philosophy of community (Chakravarty, N. C., 1959). (3) Public library philosophy is undemocratic in that it tries to do everything for its patrons, neutralizing their individuality. Social conscience reinforces vested interest against individual interest; it can be avoided by not thinking in terms of "current social realities" (Griffin, B., 1973). (4) When chosen by personal inclination, the philosophy becomes an ideology (Carter, G. A., 1948). (5) The American Library Association is not interested in the philosophy of librarianship, except for ethical issues stressing quality of service, censorship, privacy of information, equitable personnel policies, and avoidance of conflict of interest -- but with no means of enforcing any of these concerns (ALA, 1930, 1939, 1947, 1975).

And finally, the revisionistic approach to philosophy of librarianship itself is criticized for its anti-intuitionism and anti-traditionalism, partisanship, and ideological viewpoint (Harwell, R., & R. Michener, 1974).

2.2 Metaphysical definitions of the philosophy of librarianship.

Philosophy of librarianship is defined in terms of proximate (client-served) and ultimate (institution - or religion-centered) ends (Temple, P., 1949). It becomes metascience, similarly to philosophy proper, by addressing the whole knowledge and culture (not the nature of reality, but the ideas about it), by focusing not on substance and content of knowledge but on its form, structure, order, and interrelation. Both, philosophers and philosophers of librarianship, serve as middlemen for other disciplines by dealing with conceptual issues of these disciplines (Kaplan, A., 1964), issues based not on the physics of library practice but on the metaphysical realities of librarianship itself, in which the concept of human mind is considered as the source and subject matter of librarianship (Wright, H. C., 1978b).

The philosophy is formulated in terms of laws of the General Systems Theory, developed as a communication system of collective memory (Orr, J. M., 1977). It focuses (a) on the objectives, the 'why-what' of the library ideals; (b) on society (Butler); (c) on individuals (Broadfield); (d) on democracy (Jewett); and (e) on profession (Danton) (Marco, G. A., 1966). It is defined in terms of various principles of librarianship, created by society for storing and disseminating knowledge (Thompson, J., 1977).

2.2.1 What it is.

Philosophy of librarianship is an inquiry into the nature, meaning, purposes, and functions of librarianship. It provides answers to questions about the essence of the library (connecting readers with books), the meaning of a generic book (as recorded knowledge), the nature of its patrons (storing information in their memories), and knowledge (a metaphysical reality in patrons' minds). Nowadays, the above-named concepts are restated in terms of energy: books as a storage of ideas, knowledge as a power possessing intellectual energy, and learning interpreted as increase of person's energy (Richardson, E. C., 1927).

To some writers, philosophy has no other meaning than as a study of the theory and principles of librarianship, providing definitions, statements of purpose (teaching-research-entertainment), aims, and relations to other disciplines (Irwin, R., 1949, 1961).

Philosophy of librarianship is a pursuit of truth, principles guiding action, and theories explaining reality: what is known, how it is put to work, and for what purpose it exists

(Benge, R. C., 1957). It is (a) a frame of reference delineating the discipline's scope and unity by explaining its purpose, functions, and occupational ideals (Becker, J., 1978); and (b) a study of human inference, based on the philosophical focus on knowledge about knowledge itself, as distinguished from the scientific focus on phenomena manifesting knowledge (Wright, H. C., 1985).

It will provide answers to important questions such as: what are the definitions of information and knowledge, how does meaning emerge from its form, and what kind of architecture is needed for building a system that can extract and operate on information content (Brown, J. S., 1986).

A distinction is also made among (a) popular, inspirational philosophies, (b) academic, analytic philosophies, (c) sociological viewpoints formulated in terms of scientific methodology, and (d) cultural, political, and economic factors in providing access to reading material for intellectual development of patrons through reading (McCrimmon, B., 1975).

2.2.2 Applications of library philosophy.

Library philosophy provides guidance in collection development (Harley, J., 1953), operational continuity (Foskett, D. J., 1962), and intellectual stimulation in critical thinking (Martin, L. K., 1964); it also stresses self-development, freedom, and democracy (Bawa, N. S., 1965) and offers a synthesis: a communality of opinion concerning the nature of librarianship qua librarianship (Shera, J. H., 1976a).

It addresses the 'why' of library purposes that vary with each library. Common to all libraries is (a) the focus on the individual (in philosophy of education) and on society (in social philosophy) (Desrochers, E. E., 1961); and (b) the social processes to educate, inform, and entertain by providing tools and formulating general concepts that classify library purposes, validate its approaches, add meaning to library operations, and clarify librarians' professional status (Mukherjee, A. K., 1966).

It questions the reasons for book collections and principles that guide creation, preservation, and transmission of knowledge. These issues are answered by the objectives, criteria, and techniques set up by library administrators. However, the common denominators for different libraries are diminishing (Lock, R. N., 1973).

2.2.3 The scope of library philosophy.

Philosophy of librarianship is based on the principle that all theoretical thoughts proceed from basic motives which exist in pre-theoretical thoughts (Panjegrouw, J. G., 1988) and are derived from form, not matter, philosophy (Wright, H. C., 1984). It stresses the triadic library role: as a communicational transferor of recorded knowledge, as an educational instructor of its use (Christ, J. M., 1972), and as a provider of information services needed by patrons for their interaction with the marketplace (Nader, R., 1974).

Such a philosophy includes definition of aims, delineates relationships with other disciplines, and serves as the scientific base for library theory (Berthold, A., 1933). It identifies, analyzes, and appraises basic assumptions and relates them to larger whole. The philosophy must be satisfactory to librarians, be consistent with social philosophy of its community, promote development of individuals', the library's and society's potential, and subject itself to self-criticism and adjustment to the political system of its society (Kolitsch, M., 1945).

Philosophy of the public library relates to human nature and individual personalities that determine readers' needs, formed by biological, environmental, and psychogenetic forces that influence changing societal values (Ranganathan, S. R., 1948). It incorporates basic assumptions that are identified, analyzed, appraised, and related to the practice of the profession and to larger aspects of life (Chatterjee, A., 1964).

Relationships between philosophy, science, and librarianship are summarized as follow: (a) whereas philosophy studies general principles, applied philosophy focuses on principles of particular discipline, providing an overview and balance for diversity of individual outlooks; (b) science is deterministic and provides an inventory of records and their uniformity; (c) librarianship is both art and science, utilizing scientific management and providing free access to information (Ranganathan, S. R., 1951).

2.3 Epistemological nature of library philosophy.

2.3.1 Nature of its definitions.

Epistemological explanation of knowledge of reality is introspective. There is a need for the intellectual interface among the intellectual structure of knowledge, librarians, and technology facilitating access to knowledge (Wright, H. C., 1982a).

Philosophy of librarianship is an applied social philosophy explaining aims, functions, and reasons for library existence (Lane, R. Mc., 1935). It is concerned not exclusively with diffusion of knowledge, but also with intellectual improvement of those library patrons who need it most but have th fewest opportunities to get it. Its practical application constitutes sociology of knowledge (Wellard, J. H., 1940). It is a practical philosophy defined in terms of its own operations; it relates to educational, informational and esthetic objectives based on research; and it is adjusted to the multi-purposes of the library clientele (Houle, C. O., 1946a).

2.3.2 Characteristics of its definitions.

Philosophy of librarianship defines its own principles (Danton, J. P., 1934). They vary with libraries, each operating under different circumstances, each affected by its librarians' own philosophy, each providing its own solutions to the local problems (Reddy, K. S., 1970). The philosophical contribution to the definition of the library profession is that it gives meaning to library activities (Asheim, L., 1953) in terms of its role in a community (Carnovsky, L., & E. W. McDiarmid, 1934).

In the past, philosophy of librarianship was based on the content of the collection. It was book-centered rather than library-centered, facilitating reader-book mediation rather than a direct dissemination of ideas (Miller, R. A., 1936).

Major principles of the American philosophy of librarianship are (a) an abstract notion of society, stressing its permissive pluralism (Rovestad, M., 1976), (b) W. James's pragmatism, a process that recognizes the moral and intellectual environment of patrons (Kerr, W., 1920), and (c) a natural-rights philosophy that shaped democratic ideals and value principles (King, D. W. & others, 1991).

2.4. Valuational assertions about philosophy of librarianship.

2.4.1 Definitions of library values.

All humans have values (Peterson, K. G., 1983). Potential value is an actual value multiplied by the probability of being used; it is realized through means-ends processes into one of the following categories: (1) economic (adequate means), (2) scientific (relating means to ends), (3) political (conflict-centered), and (4) esthetic (creating new ends). Relevance involves information that is wanted, needed, provided, timely, reliable, valid, adequate, and wide-ranging (Mason, R. O., 1987).

Definitions of ethical value-concepts are compatible only with the root metaphors of corresponding metaphysical hypotheses; hence there can be no one, universal definition of ethical concepts such as 'good' (Nitecki, J. Z., 1959).

Values depend on the relationships between their pragmatic interpretation in a theoretical context (as metainformation) and their actual social environment (Gomez, M. N. G., 1990). However, the shifting values and lack of uniformity in librarianship make their identification difficult (Getzel, J. W., 1957).

Values are divided into (1) professional, such as a commitment to service and reading, neutrality, and political freedom, (2) general values of cooperation, tolerance, etc., (3) personal, humanistic, conservative, idealistic, or esthetic values, and (4) rival values such as bureaucratic rigidity, anti-intellectual mediocrity, or nihilistic cynicism (Finks, L. W., 1989). They may be considered in terms of (1) their economic aspect in a market-place, (2) their metaphysical quality, (3) the effects of their production costs, and (4) the function of their utility (Cooney, J. P., 1987).

Professional ethics defines roles of different types of libraries and offers a creed and code of behavior. It aims at a concept of an ideal librarian, who believes in the value of librarianship as a keeper of books selected for supporting, learning, and promoting culture; and it accepts professional neutrality, opposes dogmatism, and supports basic freedoms (Mukherjee, A. K., 1966).

The philosophy of librarianship can be either a value-laden system of motivating beliefs based on principles and beliefs, or a theoretical, value-free system (Buckland, M. K., 1988).

The trend to quantify human behavior is based on a wrong assumption that reality can only be explained by data, thus failing to distinguish between numerical description and a non-statistical explanation of reality (Odi, A., 1982). Reading behavior, for example, is influenced by readers' personal values (Becker, B. W. & P. E. Connor, 1982).

2.4.2 Valuational limits.

2.4.2.1 General comments.

Knowledge consists of objective truth and subjective persuasiveness; truth reflects language-reality correspondence, beauty refers to the enjoyable aspects of knowledge, goodness to its desirability, freedom depends on the kinds of desirable goods, and justice is interpreted as an opposite to unjust values (Money, Ch., P., 1984).

The concepts of quality (capability) and value (beneficial effect) of library services do not necessarily complement each other. In a narrow sense, the focus is on quality, but in a broad sense it is on the utility of library services (Buckland, M., 1982).

Selection of material in collection development is based on the philosophical concept of absolute value used as a comparison and standard, learned from the values already preserved in the collection (Harley, J., 1953).

A conflict between the quality of the collection (based on librarians' value-judgment) and its quantity (demanded by the public) results in a mediocre service and useless duplication of collections (Bishop, W. W., 1919).

2.4.2.2 Ethical issues.

Morality and ethics are not synonymous. According to Aristotle, ethics can be a science or morality. Russell defined ethics as "general principles that help to determine rules of conduct" but do not provide actual rules. Moore formulated the naturalistic fallacy of deducing moral categories from empirical or metaphysical concepts. 'Ought' does not follow from 'is', hence ethics constantly searches for the foundation of morality. We start with intuition of right conduct and combine it with knowledge by induction from sense-perception (Aristotle). The danger is in casuistry and dogmatic interpretation of morality (Capuro, R., 1985).

The code of ethics defines the professional status of librarianship by prescribing specialized knowledge, ethical standards, self-governance, rights and privileges, contributions to society, and intellectual freedom. Broadly defined, it relates to limited judgment in selection of resources, giving patrons what they want. Narrowly defined, it refers to giving them what they should have; it is an arbitrary and subjective judgment. The solution to the dilemma is in focusing on material that enriches human life (Stichler, R. N., 1992).

Thus, a code of ethics is a mixture of general principles and definite rules. Moral truths do not change, but their applications depend on environmental changes (Anderson, J. F., 1969). The value of the code itself is doubtful, since good people do not need it and bad people will not follow it.

Ethics in research concentrates not only on information but also on its use. In teaching, it avoids biased presentations, and in information science it considers information as a social power, addressing abuse of facilities, confidentiality, influence of brokers, and vendors. Ethical library principles in the dissemination of information include accessibility and completeness.

2.4.2.3 Critical comments about philosophy of librarianship.

Before any philosophy of librarianship is formulated, the following issues should be clarified: (1) relationships between library and information centers, (2) professional librarians and library educational roles, and (3) definition of the library clientele, the roles of books, and different types of libraries (Mumford L. Q., 1966).

Today, the term 'elitism' means anti-democratic bias, male chauvinism, judgmental and/or prejudicial values. In the past it referred to dedication to scholarship. Anti-intellectualism is seen in criticizm of elitist, bookish librarians, dedicated to controversial issues. Intellectualism is rejected as an unnecessary or even detrimental attitude in library practice. However, intellectuals have the capacity for discriminating judgment. Anti-intellectuals discriminate against that very capacity (Isaacson, D., 1982).

Hypocrisy is an intentionally deceptive interpretation of ethical principles of librarianship, deceit which interferes with the mission to provide objective dissemination of knowledge (Nitecki, J. Z., 1983).

Skepticism implies a futility in the pursuit of truth; similarly, the abstract notion of a collection that represents all views is in conflict with common sense (Jackson, S. L., 1971).

Discriminating judgment relating to absolute values may be in conflict with value-free intellectual freedom. Libraries often give people what they don't want, replacing traditional moral value by meaningless facts (Marshall, P., 1976).

2.5 Librarians, Librarianship and Libraries.

2.5.1 Metaphysical definitions.

ME-Co: Meaning of the concepts.

(a) Librarians deal with the 'aboutness' of documents' content, not its truth or consistency. 'Aboutness' entails the knowledge of what is needed by what type of readers, and is influenced by these readers' bibliographic ignorance of the subject sought (Fairthorne, R. A., 1973).

Librarians are defined (1) as generalists without specialization, but with a general understanding of the scope of knowledge, which enables coordination of the work of specialists (Kaser, D., 1975), (2) as generalists specializing in searching the totality of recorded knowledge (Lekai, E. A., 1977), (3) as bibliographical experts and managers, custodians of immediately unavailable resources (Bryson, L., 1937), or (4) as teachers, selecting reading material and encouraging its use (Dewey, M., 1876).

(b) The essence of librarianship is described in terms of the reading processes that provide the understanding of the causes, roles, relations, and meanings of the universe (MacLeish, A., 1972). It is a process of fulfilling patrons' needs (Stieg, M. F., 1992), thus reducing entropy (Penland, P. R., 1971). The psychological approach stressed primacy of the individual (Broadfield, Foskett, L. Martin), considering a library as a social institution (M. Dewey).

Librarianship is defined in terms of a variety of basic concepts and relations. The philosophical approach defines librarianship as metascience (Kaplan), as epistemology of knowledge (Richardson), as social epistemology (Shera), as humanistic immaterialism (H. C.Wright), as human linguistics (Yngwe), as a discipline stressing the values of reading (Sayers, Haines, Powell), as a discipline embodied in a metaphorical model (J. Z. Nitecki), as Five Laws (Ranganathan), or as esthetic (Bostwick) and ethical neutrality (McColvin, Foskett). It is a metaphysical rather than a scientific domain (McInnis, R. G., 1982), a science of the mind.

The concept of librarianship should relate to the formal realities of the ideational order, not to the physical realities of statistical order (Wright, H. C., 1981).

In the sociological view, librarianship is considered a social institution in transition, reflecting the philosophy of society (Kolitsch), emphasizing social responsibilities (Berninghausen) and book selection (Putnam, Goldhor) (Egan, M., 1955).

The political view aims at reconciliation of group conflict (Dana) and mediation between group interests (J. Z. Nitecki). Religious views express roles of Christian librarians (Burke).

Professional philosophy emphasized the uniqueness of librarianship (Butler, Dana), exhibiting tolerance and proficiency on one hand (S. W. Foss) and policing the effectiveness of books on another (Ortega).

Librarianship is a social process based on the librarians' service, devotion, and belief in the value of the library to its public (Collison, R. L., 1958). It assists in the conversion of facts into logic, free will into a purpose, conscience into decision-making, historical experience into a design of a sane world, and individual morality into group ethics (Cousins, N., 1959).

Librarianship is not considered either a place or an end in itself, but a means for accomplishing its goals (White, H. S., 1978 & Baker, N., 1994). It provides conditions for relating, organizing, and using recorded knowledge (Gates, J. K., 1976). Its main objective is to assist the patron in educational processes by providing needed facilities and resources (Anwar, M., 1967). Its mission is to bring together the right book, with the right person at the least cost (not to get together the best books for the largest audience at any cost) (Roden, C. B., 1923). That mission is perceived by some writers as a bibliothecal priesthood with moral responsibility for the future of the society (Kaser, D., 1971).

(c) Library service is defined as a purposive use of resources aimed at attainment of desired changes (Newenan, P. A., 1985). Library work consists of librarycraft and intellectual inventiveness (Jordan, P., 1942), and a librarian is seen as a keeper of books, responsible for their physical format and intellectual content (Macleish, A., 1940a).

Library organization and collections serve as textbooks for what is termed 'knowledgeableness and informationability'. The library is an organized collection of carriers of knowledge; it locates and indicates interrelationships between the items in the collection (Michaels, C. D. C. L., 1985).

The library is an active, democratic organization, characterized (a) by a focus on people and tacit knowledge (Natoli, J. P., 1982), about knowledge (McGarry, K. J., 1975); (b) by relating physical symbols and their ideative referents (Wright, H., C., 1986); and (c) by promoting the basic right to read any material without governmental intervention (Stevenson, G., 1977). Its interdisciplinarity is characterized by common goals and activities, functions, research, subject knowledge, and technology (Rawski, C. H., 1973b), focusing on the content, structure and theory of knowledge (Mohamed, O., 1975).

ME-Cx: Meaning of the library environment.

World librarianship is described in terms of its environmental appropriateness, interdependence, and convergence (Krieg, C. J., 1970). It is rooted in the cultural, sociological, political, and economic conditions of its society (Predeck, A., 1939); it is considered a social investment in the democratic countries and a cultural center in the communist block (Williams, V., 1984).

2.5.2 Epistemological nature of the domain.

EP-Co: Characteristics of librarians, librarianship, and

libraries

(a) Librarians.

Librarians are characterized by their function. (1) As managers they administer libraries hierarchically, not by subjects. Departmentalization by function was necessary in the era of large, single catalog, but the introduction of computers requires change from functional, hierarchical relationships to a matrix-style organization, a managerial network that stresses goals and, in small libraries, a collegial management style (Altmann, A. E., 1988). (2) Librarians' functions are defined by triadic relationships between practice, education, and research (Okko, M., 1985), and by (3) an interaction between the old, bureaucratic and a new, patron-oriented approach.

There is a connection between knowledge advancement and the librarian's analyses of knowledge growth; it is reflected in library collections, which strike balance between different domains, in correcting wrong retrieval strategies, and in stimulating future research by acquiring, indexing, and coordinating resources for the library scholarly community (Lyle, G. R., 1963).

Librarians deal with the text either as a carrier of concept, or as an object with marks on it, but seldom as both at the same time (Fairthorne, R. A., 1961).

(b) Librarianship.

The definitions of librarianship reflect (a) differences between the humanistic libraries' focus on general issues and scientific libraries' restricted meaning (Jelin, V., 1970), and (b) cultural settings. For example, we have (1) the difference between the pre-1939 traditional and post-1945 progressive philosophy of librarianship in Germany (Stieg, M. F., 1986), (2) the conceptual paradoxes in Polish librarianship which were created by cultural incentives to expand library services and constrained by state politics and by the contrast between biblio-psychological and socio- educational interpretations of library roles (Gorecki, D., 1976).

Behavioral aspects of librarianship relate to the way librarians think, feel, behave, and interact with patrons (Fine, S., 1984). The conceptual framework for the behavioral demeanor of librarians consists of understanding attitudes and common -sense interpretations of relations in communication. In interpreting their behavioral skills, the descriptive rather than a prescriptive approach should be used (DeHart, F. E., 1979), and services should satisfy both functions (Bishop, D., 1976).

However, the importance of the concept of librarianship is also de-emphasized, since the discipline is rhetorical rather than logical, patron-driven and practice-oriented, borrowing abstract concepts from other disciplines (Sharp, J., 1981).

The focus in librarianship should change from the practical 'how' to serve to the understanding of the needs for the service (O'Halloran, C., 1967).

The terms 'librarianship' and 'philosophy of librarianship' are inexact and should be replaced by terms such as 'library theory', 'library thought', or 'library science' (Vleeshauwer, H. J., 1960).

(c) Library.

All libraries have similar social goals, defined in terms of their patrons' needs (Swanson, D. R., 1964); they differ in the purposes for arranging and interpreting their collections (Randall, W. M., 1940; Benge, R. C., 1957), restated as Gestalt functions (Grazziano, E. E., 1975). Library credo stresses the importance of patrons' needs, accurate processes, and proper environment (Wright, W. W., 1955).

A distinction is made between (a) library substance and its instruments, and (b) physical datum and metaphysical referent (ideas). Symbolic data are interpreted by mind intrinsically in terms of their referents; science interprets them extrinsically, in terms of their nature (Wright, H. C., 1979). The library is seen as a prepackager of information for ready access. The perfect library meets all needs of all patrons (Asworth, W., 1979).

Primary library objectives determine its character and function (McMahon, A. M. & J. Tydeman, 1978). The discipline focuses on book socialization, support of democracy, and the status quo (Ditzion, S., 1947); it is concerned primarily with knowledge, not information, and its interrelationships between books and their readers (Neill, S., 1985).

The tendency to uniformity in library organization creates a conceptual problem, since each library serves different clienteles. Diversity is needed to serve individual patrons more effectively; unity is necessary to interrelate all agencies in advancing learning.

Library functions are political (Freiser, L. H., 1988), and their purposes relate to Malinowski's functionalism; librarians, as bookmen, mediate between books and readers (Vickery, B. C., 1970) and bridge the gap between sciences and humanities by offering scientists non-scientific reading material in public libraries (Foskett, D. J., 1964).

The library is the only social agency devoted solely to the collection, preservation, and accessibility of records (Gates, J. K., 1976). It is the most logical place to bring together the library and its patrons by offering: (1) a large diverse collection of databases, (2) savings to patrons over purchasing personal copies, (3) the services of an information specialist for assistance, consultation, and instruction in the use of systems, and (4) a reference librarian in an enhanced role as instructor and facilitator in developing individual search strategies (Rice, J., 1986).

Patrons must participate in determining library goals (Clift, V. A., 1970), since it is an individual patron, not the librarian, who initiates and defines library services in terms of his or her own interest (Vice, K., 1988).

EP-Cx: Characteristics of the environment.

Environment shapes us and we the environment (Greco, M., 1967). Library ecology includes cultural and behavioral understanding of social setting (Bergen, D. P., 1963a). Librarianship should be considered in the context of its specialization and salesmanship (Drake, M. A., 1977), and reference services examined in the context of the total library environment (Vavrek, B. F., 1968).

The history of librarianship relates to the geography and environment of the library (Brewer, J. G., 1970) and can be revisionistic, conservative, or professional (Harris, M., 1977). It provides perspectives on the role of libraries in the past (Irwing, R., 1958), as illustrated by the significant impact of Philadelphia's Library Company on the American society and similar social movements that were instrumental in developing public school and library systems (Fain, E., 1978). This is a recurring circle of moral commitments and bureaucratic processes. Revisionistic interpretation criticizes the American public library for its "uplift" theory (Harris, M., 1973) by considering founders of the library movement to be elitists, contrary to a Jeffersonian democracy that defends people against aristocracy by advocating reading (Harris, M., 1976b). The revisionistic criticism is rejected by some writers as overlooking the context of the times (Dain, P., 1975).

The modern library emerged in 1876 as a professional occupation. Scholarly bibliographers study books as complex intellectual artifacts; librarians focus on functions and operations; documentalists aim at a universal index to all documents; library science started in the 1920s concentrating on standard scholarship and procedures borrowed from social sciences methodology. In the 1950s the emphasis in library history shifted from fact-gathering about librarianship to the study of its environment (Ditzion, S., 1947). In 1968 information science began the retrieval of machine stored data.. Information science and librarianship are similar, differing only at the end of the continuum (Rayward, W. B., 1983a).

In post-industrial society, the political environment and the increased need for knowledge are most important (Wilson, Pauline, 1978). For example, poor relations in the university environment weaken the full utilization of college library potential (Stoica, I., 1977), and the political localism

of a public library is impaired by population growth, knowledge expansion, and obsolescence of local collections (Brahm, W., 1964). These operational conflicts can be clarified by political analyses of library environment and resources (Raffel, J. A., 1974).

Comparative librarianship concentrates on similarities and differences in national environments, searching for common causes and their impact on the library movements, while international librarianship focuses on information about libraries in specific countries (Danton, J. P., 1973). Everywhere, however, librarianship is affected by changing social structures and philosophical interpretation of its role (Egan, M., 1955). Many libraries develop systems to fit the individual, so that the individual does not have to adapt by fitting the library systems (Harden, R., 1978). Those systems are determined by patrons' educational and social needs for information and library skills, reinforced by feedback (Salton, G., 1975; Gwynn, S., 1954).

The United States' contribution to the field of librarianship includes (1) considering a library as an organization of books, (2) introducing the service concept, (3) developing a library profession, (4) stressing its educational role and intellectual freedom, and (5) considering information as a public resource (Swank, R. C., 1963). The impact of American librarianship on French librarianship in the years 1900-1950, for example, was evident in the introduction in France of open access, children's work, adult education, the bookmobile, library education, the author/title catalog, Dewey classification, and reference service (Maack, M. N., 1986).

EP-Pd: Characteristics of library processes.

Whether librarianship has a philosophy or not, its methodology implies the philosophical function of generalizing verified conclusions, validated by consensus, not mere conjecture (Bliss, H. E., 1935). Since there is no one generic library, there is no single model for library operations (Pungitore, V. L., 1989).

Library proceedings evolved from the bookkeeping processes (McCrimmon, B., 1994), and libraries are evaluated in terms of their functions, not in terms of the fulfillment of their goals (Bergen, D. P., 1963a). Nowadays, the primary function is to maximize effective social utilization of graphic records (Egan, M. et al., 1956). The responsibility for interpretation of published knowledge increases with the decrease of book availability (Edelman, H., 1976). Library mapmaking (i.e., compiling bibliographies) relates to the patrons information patterns and needs and to librarian-patron relations (Merikangas, R. J., 1987).

On the whole, library services exist only if there is a demand for them. Librarians help patrons only if asked, anticipating patrons' needs (Monroe, M. E., 1963). Some writers think that librarians should not mediate between the books and their readers but should instead concentrate on the development of tools facilitating access to the resources (Illich, I., 1978), and that the public library should gradually divert recreative reading habits from 'trash' to light literature (Fletcher, W. I., 1894).

The economic analysis of library activities focuses on the choice, allocation, and distribution of available resources (Raffel, J. A., 1974). There are three kinds of academic library services: (1) the college library, focusing on library instruction and patrons' self-service, (2) the university library, providing collections which are general in scope and specialized in content, and (3) research libraries, concentrating on information about the specialized resources (Harlow, N., 1963). The county library is responsible for the provision of reading material and for the development of love of reading among its patrons (Durell, T. J., 1938).

Incongruities in library processes include confusion between (1) the function to provide requested reading and the control of patrons' reading behavior, (2) efficiency in optimizing the use of resources and effectiveness in serving the information needs (Ladendorf, J., 1973), (3) the conflict between the commitment to the profession and to the employing institution, (4) the disharmony between provision of services and bureaucratic control by rules and regulations, and (5) acknowledgment of social changes by mere technical adjustments to them (Eggelton, R., 1979).

2.5.3 Valuational assertions.

VA-Co: Worth of the concept.

Shifting social values create tension and impact negatively on the public support of libraries (Becker, J., 1978). Librarians should not devise new virtues (imponderables), but should instead reinforce the existing ones by serving the community efficiently and by resolving emerging conflicts in terms of existing values (Sawyer, E. R., 1923).

The value-insight of librarians is limited and should be supplemented by value judgments based on established criteria (Matthew, D. A., 1969); librarians search for information without questioning its value (Wilson, Patrick, 1973).

Librarians' spiritual horizons are based on truth as a dynamic and static concept (Sewell, P., 1979). Librarians should be honest, should rise above social, political, or religious prejudice, and should aspire to an impartial, fair and openminded philosophical unity that would break down all barriers (Roberts, H. W., 1941). An ideal librarian, in eyes of some writers, is a bookman and teacher, opposing censorship and valuing the book as a life artifact and a symbol (Powell, L. C. 1954). They should avoid either condescension or self-deprecation in evaluating libraries in other countries (Moore, E. T., 1960).

Some people think that parables about librarianship must be demystified. (1) Libraries are not neutral institutions, this notion confuses neutrality with objectivity. (2) Intellectual freedom is a means toward a just society, not the accomplished fact. And (3) free access to information is a desirable goal, but limited in reality (Schuman, P. G., 1976). Although all librarians are for free access to resources and intellectual freedom, they do not always support these ideals in practice (Shields, G. R., 1977).

In the public mind the image of librarians is often that of inflexible elitists, considering books as the ends rather than means, indiscriminately collecting everything (Fragasso, P. M., 1979). The library-oriented sociology of knowledge is helpful in providing the 'what-why-where' of library values and patrons' attitudes; the sociology of librarianship stresses cooperation (Smith, G. M., 1973).

VA-Cx: Value of library environment.

Evaluation of library goals is difficult because of their interrelatedness with variety and use of library resources (Hamburg, M., et al., 1976). Among the library values often discussed are the values (1) of manuscripts, scholarship, and love of books (Buton, M. & M. E., Vosburgh, 1934), (2) of an information environment that increases with the expansion of technology (Kaegbin, P., 1976), and (3) of realizing that some inefficient systems and unusable books may be of value in the future (Glazer, N., 1965).

VA-Pd: Significance of library processing.

In the age of specialization, the methods used in processing and accessing information are more valuable than the information itself (Kaegbin, P., 1976). The self-evident worth of librarianship and the patron's self-service is not sufficient argument in favor of librarianship (White, H. S., 1978).

2.6 Library Science.

2.6.1 Metaphysical definitions of library science.

Library science is defined as (1) a triadic, invisible, integral system of books, libraries, and readers (Frumin, J., 1977); (2) a cluster of interlocking professions (Boll, J. J., 1972); (3) a science of mind (Wright, H. C., 1979); (4) a humanistic discipline focusing on communication of ideas (not on transmission of signals) (Wright, H. C., 1981a); and (5) a practical knowledge of library processes and management, aiming at selection of needed resources (Grasberger, F., 1952).

As one of the metasciences, its method is based on scientific inference and its logical, epistemological, and ontological aspects. It focuses not on physical reality, but on logical, deductive, demonstrative, and conclusive knowledge (Wright, H. C., 1985a). Its social function is to study ways for satisfying needs and the technology of efficient operations. It is mission-oriented, aiming at the improvement of culture, independent of bibliography and information science (Frumin, J., 1977).

Library science is interpreted metaphorically as a discipline uncommitted to any other viewpoint, by providing insight to symbolic relationships between conceptual vehicles of information, their meaning, and interpretation (Nitecki, J. Z., 1979a).

2.6.2 Epistemological characteristics of library science.

EP-Co: Characteristics of the concepts.

The intellectual foundations of library science contain selection, organization, planning, and management of library resources; guidance in their use; and historical, philosophical, and legal aspects (Carnovsky, L., 1964).

The main function of library science as a science is to examine empirically discovered facts, and as an educational institution to analyze philosophical reasons for performing these functions (Borden, A. K., 1931). It manages human intellection based on knowledge subsistence. Frequent issues in library science include censorship, intellectual freedom, computer application, social activism, scientific management, and educational concepts (Dutton, J., 1988).

Library science focuses on understanding library problems and the use of technology in their solutions (Vickery, B. C., 1970). Its paradigms are defined by empirical functionalism, the socio-political behavior of patrons, and their perception of subjective staff behavior (Olaisen. J. L., 1985).

Library science is contrasted with science: the former focuses on form, rational methodology, and metaphysics of thoughts, the latter on matter, empirical methodology, and physical experiences (Wright, H. C., 1977b). Library science is also distinguished from librarianship; it concentrates on the theory and fundamental principles of librarianship, while librarianship is concerned with library practice (Langridge, D. W., 1978). It does not include archives (Roberts, J. W., 1987).

Its unique characteristic is the collection of recorded information; to include in its definition unrecorded information would change its basic functions (Wilson, Pauline, 1977); the definition ought to be based on books, their production, appearance, content, and use.

Library science is criticized for a lack of a fully developed theory and philosophy (Houser, L. J., 1982), and its ability to absorb information science and management is questioned (Gleaves, E. S., 1982).

EP-Cx: Characteristics of the environment.

Library science focuses on issues rather than activities because library collections existed long before the concept of service (Lancaster, F. W., 1983). It has a unique public, intellectual, and social environment, information transfer-related theory, and related problems (Hauser, L. & A. M. Schrader, 1978). As a social science, it educates and encourages reading based on its unique theories of recorded knowledge.

Social interpretation of library science context emphasizes selection of material conditioned by social, political, and religious factors, by available means, and by social setting. The integration of the library learning environment is developed at the political-organizational level, with similarities and differences in bibliographic organization reflecting related similarities and differences in subject disciplines (Knapp, P. B., 1964).

The application of new technology is determined by the needs of the society, requiring a new environment that would relate a library as a social agency to business activities (Penniman, W. D., 1987), based on market strategy.

Library science faces two environmental enemies: cultural apathy and preoccupation with technology (Handlin, O., 1987).

Expanding information technology will create a "library without walls" (Lancaster, F. W., 1983).

2.7 Information.

2.7.1 Metaphysical definitions of information.

ME-Co: Meanings of the concept.

The definitions of information are ambivalent. It is considered as a potential utility, a mathematical equation, a paradigm, a cause of uncertainty, a component of physics or semantics, a context of the message, a base for classification, a measure, a property of matter or consciousness, a process of information retrieval, or information-related phenomena (Belkin, N. J., 1978). It is also defined as a relation between data and their recipients (Battin, P., 1984) and seen as a content of a message (Neill, S., 1980) or a message itself (a physical carrier and its content) (Koblitz, J., 1969).

The meaning of information can be semantic: as a primary (raw data), secondary (about information), or tertiary (by-product of primary information) concept (Menou, M., 1969). It consists of data describing part of reality (Information 1), Ideas of internal reality (Information 2) and personal perception of reality based on Information 1 and 2 (Information 3) (Dervin, B., 1977).

(a) In librarianship, information is a commodity and patrons are considered its customers, whose images of information become natural entities of reality (Frohmann, B., 1922).

(b) In biological sciences, information is a content, organizing the structure of environment.

(c) In communication sciences, information communicates meaning (McGarry, K. J., 1975). It is that which one is told (Machlup, F., 1983); a commodity (Debons, A., 1974); Shannon's signal transmission; knowledge communicated to individuals; a thing, a means for communication (Buckland, M .K., 1991).

(d) In social sciences, it is a communication of social meaning (McGarry, K J., 1975).

In general, information is always about something, defined in terms of its effects (MacKay, D. M., 1969) as a ratio between possible answers existing before and after information is obtained (i.e., a negentropy) (Brillouin, L., 1962).

Information is subjective and can be a phenomenon or a process, caused by external stimulation (Curras, E., 1987), free from mass and energy, intangible, part of a social process, reproducible, contingent on processing to exist as an image in person's mind (Diener, R., 1989).

Information is a part of both information science and library sciences, also of artificial intelligence, cognitive science, and mathematics (Machlup, F. & U. Mansfield, 1983b).

ME-Cx: Meaning of its environment.

Information can be a part of environment in a system (Debons, A., 1974), or a factor in changing it (Anderton, M., 1987). As an abstract phenomenon (Wright, H. C., 1977a), information is defined as nonphysical; independent of and external to human actions (Rohde, N. F., 1986a); a metaphorical, nonliving organism, or a statistical probability; (Machlup, F., 1983); a utility, a mathematical equation, a source of uncertainty, context of the message, base for classification, a measure, a property (Belkin, N. J., 1978;) or a theory (specialized information) (Koblitz, J., 1969).

As a physical phenomenon, information is defined as a property in the environment (Stonier, T., 1991), a physical manifestation of a constant need for information (its paleology) (Arntz, H., 1983).

Major themes in information environment are literacy, organization of knowledge, dissemination, free access, and economics of information. Philosophical aspects of information are discussed by Dretske (in the context of communication and theory of knowledge); Nauta (as a linguistic and semiotic meaning); Machlup (as economics of information); Marxists (as tool for regulating society); Davis (as management of information system); system theory (as relationships between decision making and information); and Kuchen (distinguishing among the elements of a data-information-knowledge-wisdom system) (Stevens, N. D., 1986).

ME-Pd: Definition of its processes.

As a process in engineering (Debons, A., 1974), information is an act of informing individuals (Buckland, M. K., 1991a), a part of information retrieval, or a transforming device (Anderton, R. M., 1987). Process can be primary (production, accumulation, and retrieval of information) or auxiliary (storing and distributing information) (Koblitz, J., 1969). As a part of a system, information is a transformation device, a part of mass-energy system, its flow (Anderton, R. M., 1987), and a force in changing environment, or a process of assigning meaning to code systems (Young, T. R., 1987).

2.7.2 Epistemological characteristics of information.

EP-Co: Characteristics of the concept.

(a) Approaches.

The cognitive approach to information focuses on behavior in the use of information; it is easy to observe but difficult to validate, hence requirements for information are determined individually by each of its users (King, D. W., 1988).

Metaphysically, information represents a discontinuity in perceiving reality (Dervin, B., 1992). Epistemologically, it reflects the ideology of the person defining it. It always existed, although in changing form. It cannot be measured until it has meaning, which is established in social context. It is not independent of economics, because economics cannot exist without information (Marvin, C., 1987).

(b) Range of information.

The scope of information includes, data, facts, theories, opinions, communication, and commodities (Apostle, R. & B. Raymond, 1986).

As an isolated collection of unrelated facts, information has less structure than knowledge and has to be associated with prior structure before it is absorbed in the mind as knowledge (McHale, J., 1976). It becomes knowledge when correlated, synthesized, and stratified (Narayana, B. J., 1984).

Electronic media address information ends only, without reference to information means of attaining these ends (Dervin, B., 1976).

In librarianship information is a function, not a format (Battin, P., 1985). Its invested interest is in the relationships between information and public policy (Irving, R. D., 1988). The contribution of librarianship to communication is in shifting meanings of information from the mental record of experience to its explanation in written records (Foskett, D. J., 1968).

As an economic commodity information is subject to market forces; as a public good it is regulated by the government (Irving, R. D., 1988).

(c) Its properties.

Information is viewed as a public or exchangeable good, a content, or a value-added process cognitively interpreted (Repo, A. J., 1989). It contributs to new theories involving right information at right time, and is concerned about ethics of information privacy and misuse (Garfield, E., 1987). It is an intentionally transmitted communication (Ford, N., 1980).

Negative information is distinguished from irrelevant information (Artandi, S. A., 1973). Information effectiveness is measured by its ability to convert to knowledge (Bergen, D. P., 1978). More information is not always better (Rees, A. M., 1964b). Information literacy means ability to use information or the possession of knowledge of information (Behrens, S. J., 1994).

(d) Its functions.

Information functions include: (a) assistance in creativity by recognizing, interpreting, retrieving, and displaying relevant analogies and patterns (Bawden, D., 1986), (b) a condition for knowledge-system effectiveness; and (c) 'sense-making' approach in formulating questions in reference work (Dervin, B., 1992). (d) An information system is just one of many information channels (Vickery, B., 1987). It consists of relationships between an initiator of information, its receiver, the intermediary (librarian), and the information process (Gilchrist, A., 1986); it is communicated through input (acquisition), output (service to users), resources, and human interface (Lazar, P., 1984). Non-physical information qua information cannot be the subject of a scientific system, because science must have a physical referent (Wright, H. C., 1976a).

(e) Differentiation.

There is a difference between information that relates to the specific interest and the enlightenment that addresses broader issues of insight and understanding of the total reality of life (Vestheim, G., 1992). There is also a confusion between the meaning of terms 'demand', 'need', 'want', and requirements for information (Roberts, N., 1975).

(f) Philosophical issues related to information.

Philosophical issues related to information include questions about (a) the status of information as an entity, independent from a physical format, (b) its physical and measurable manifestations, (c) relations between information quantities, (d) information continuity status, (e) manipulational limits of matter and energy, and (f) the laws of information operations (Otten, K. W., 1974). The problems in defining information are often explained away by focusing on information functions rather than its nature (Fox, C., J., 1983). Also of interest in the philosophy of librarianship are the issues related to systems theory (decision making), information literacy, organization of knowledge, dissemination, free access, and economics of information.

EP-Cx: Characteristics of information environment.

Environment is defined as available information which assists in setting and achieving goals (Dill, W. R., 1962). The control of the information environment started in 1990 by defining its purposes in the political and economic environment (Beniger, J. R., 1986).

Information facilities increase with demand for them, creating an environmental gap between haves and haves not (Cawkell, A. E., 1986). However, information itself is not subject to the law of supply and demand because it can be sold and retained at the same time (Gell, M. K., 1981).

It is a fallacy to assume that sufficient information will always satisfy information needs, because information itself depends on its understanding by the person in need of it (Du Mont, R. R., 1981). What is critical here is not so much a need for information, but its retrieval value as a vital necessity in survival (Frants, V. I. & C. B. Bush, 1988); uncertainty is created by a lack of information (Hollnagel, E., 1980).

Philosophical issues related to the nature of information include subjectivity and objectivity in the use of information discussed by both Popper and Dervin. The philosophical assumptions of the Information Age surmise that information is a principal societal commodity and that its economic engine is capable of unlimited growth. This assumption is challenged on the ground that the description of the Information Age is ideological, problematizing the relationship between the real social practices and their prescriptions, and that information growth is not the same as the growth of knowledge (Slack, J. D., 1987). Furthermore, Popper's World 3 is criticized for ignoring human content and context of information (Rudd, D., 1983).

EP-Pd: Characteristics of information processing.

Information societies always existed; they differ in the kind of information needed (Havard-William, P., 1987); information processing has been revolutionized by the introduction of computers and the dissemination of information has been increased by reprography.

Information needs are natural, physiological, emotional, and cognitive, and they motivate accomplishment of goals by learning (Bernatowicz, K., 1987). Information processes consist of gradual steps toward a discovery of new information by sifting, reviewing, and synthesizing available records (Kochen, M., 1967).

'Informationism' is (a) a process or a phenomenon, responding to external stimuli (Curras, E., 1987); (b) the end result of a process (Skovira, R. J., 1989) which depends on processes that produce it and cannot be defined independently (McGarry, K. J., 1987); and/or (c) a product of transfer of organizational structures aiming at reduction of uncertainty (Leupold, M., 1983). It is filtered, interpreted, abstracted, and affected by biological and artificial needs for more information (Ligomenides, P., 1985), and it changes knowledge about reality (Foskett, D. J., 1970). Empirical information is analyzed by frequency-rank statistics while metaphysical interpretation focuses on mental realities (Brookes, B. C., 1980b).

Entropy is a measure of the energy that is unavailable for useful work. The concept raises a philosophical question about the meaning of information, its value and interpretation. In the library, entropy interrupts orderly library systems and is counteracted by order-creating processes (e.g., indexes), vocabulary control, and subject classification (Shaw, D., 1982).

Information technology prompts changes; without changes information is irrelevant (Parker, M. M. & R. J. Benson, 1987).

Information inquiry is serendipitous, and it may lead to unexpected results (Carr, D., 1981). Information retrieval does not add to knowledge; it provides information-relevant documents (Christ, M., 1972).

Search methodology is based on users' input, followed by factors affecting information retrieval (Ingwersen, O., 1982). Semantic noise (different meanings of the same signal) limits information (Miller, G. A., 1983a).

Information centers serve specialized information needs for theoretical scientists (Weinbert, A. M., 1964) and documentalists who perform library-type tasks, requiring specialized subject knowledge that focuses on bibliographies and activities beyond librarianship (Mohrhardt, F. E., 1964).

Problem solving is a stimulus-response process aimed at solving information needs, with the needs acting as stimuli for satisfying these needs (Haverlock, R. G., 1977).

Information made available to all destroys privacy, eliminates jobs, and increases the power of those who have it, distancing them from those who lack information (Caldwell, A. E., 1986).

The metaphor of the ant colony illustrates information processes. Neural firings in the brain, stimulated by information, trigger other patterns of activities independently of central nervous systems and uncontrolled by logic. Thus data do not carry special meaning, but trigger patterns of symbols, similarly to individual ants, whose movements are not centrally controlled, although each movement affects the total behavior in an ant colony (Hofstadter, D. R., 1985).

2.7.3 Valuational assessments.

Va-Co: Definitions of information value.

Information does not exist by itself; it is a part of the social, cultural or material, value system (Benge, R. C., 1984). It must be used to have value (Narayana, B. J., 1984) and is free from ethical intentions in satisfying needs (Belkin, N. J. & S. E. Robertson, 1976). Its value is in its ability to describe reality (Rohde, N. F., 1986).

The quality of information practice can be improved by epistemology of design science, research logic, integration of functions, and transformation of information system (Moigne, J. L., 1985).

VA-Cx: Context of its valuational assertions.

Information acquires value in decision-making processes, and this value increases with the increasing cost of alternatives (Melody, W. H., 1986). As a resource or commodity, the value of information is determined by market price (Converse, W. R., 1984). As a marketable commodity, information is non-excludable and non-depletable, and its value is defined in terms of costs of services and their benefits (Shaw, V. A., 1987).

In the present market-oriented society it is important to understand how and to whom librarians promote themselves. The focus ought to be on the perception of librarianship by others, not by librarians themselves (Boardman, E. M., 1988).

Va-Pd: Valuational assertions of its processes.

The economic value of information enhances the returns on investment, assists in planning, offers competitive advantages and provides information to managers (Parker, M. M. & R. J. Benson, 1987). As a product, information has political and economic value; it does not follow the law of energy conservation, although it becomes obsolete (Artandi, S., 1978).

2.8 Information Science and Informatic.

2.8.1 General Comments.

The contributing factors in the emergence of information science were the following: studies in linguistics and semantics (1933); value inquiries (1938); decision theory (1939); documentation and its physical aspects (1945); information theory and cybernetics (1948); communication and behavioral sciences (1950); and information science as a communication discipline, focusing on maximum accessibility and usability of information (1962). It became an objective, subjective, and practical domain made of inquiries extended to liberal education (cybernetic pragmatism), humanities (epistemo-dynamics), engineering (symbol manipulation, statistics, cybernetics, bionic, mathematics, library science, and documentation) (Harmon, G., 1971).

Sarton was the first historian of information science and the founder of ISIS. E. W. Humes used the term 'statistical bibliography' of science; Pritchard applied 'bibliometrics' in quantitative analyzes of citations (Garfield, E., 1973).

Philosophical issues in information science include metaphysics of classification, social epistemology emphasizing relevance, and the judgment of cognitive authority (Woodward, D., 1987). Philosophical implications of information science must be considered in the context of human ability to absorb information technology (Saksida, M., 1992).

Humanization of information science focuses on its assistance to users. The approach reinterprets some of the common notions. (a) Computer technology is a historical accident rather than a scientific organizing principle. (b) Library effectiveness is not synonymous with efficient management. (c) The main goal of library information science is to bring together information seeker and information sought in the human context. (d) Computers, book collection, and building issues should not be confused with library function to provide needed services (Elman, S. A., 1976).

The discipline is considered by some writers as a misconceived movement, since information is a noetic form, not a physical referent, and the study of information should be of its form; information science studies not information but its vehicle (Wright, H. C., 1976b).

2.8.2 Metaphysical definitions.

(a) Information science.

Information science is (a) a study of information producing processes in any information system (Hayes, R. M., 1993); (b) it is a facilitator of communication processes (Belkin, N. J., & S. E., Robertson, 1976; Boyce, B. R. & D. H. Kraft, 1985); (c) it studies information needs, information systems and services (Settle, B. & D. A. Marchand, 1988); (d) it consolidates various topics, such as intellectual property, methods of assigning values and costs, impact of information technology, information policy, and relationships with other disciplines (Haas, W. J., 1987); (e) it is a practical approach concentrating primarily on the behavior of individuals seeking information (Roberts, N., 1976). It investigates properties, structure and transmission of specialized knowledge, and it develops methodology that includes (1) logic and mathematics (in information retrieval), (2) behavioral sciences (in psychology and sociology of communication), (3) linguistics (in transmission of knowledge), and (4) systems (in evaluation of information organization as a whole) (Taylor, R. S., 1973).

Because of a lack of a consensus on its definition, information science is not yet considered a full science (Wellish, H., 1972). Here are some examples of a diversity in definitions of information science. It is (1) a triangle of a computer (data), management (data technology relations), and organization (description and explanation of relations) (Swanson, E. B.,

1987); (2) a subsystem of sociology since it involves people (Fairthorne, R. A., 1968b); (3) a field that can be defined in terms of information needs, aiming at the reduction of uncertainty, or data reducing them (Wersig, G. & U. Neveling, 1975); (4) an investigation of the properties and behavior of information flow and means of maximizing its accessibility and usability (Schlutter, R. A., 1968); a medium which generates, organizes, and transmits information (Tague, J., 1979); (5) the study of principles and purposes of information applications (Fairthorne, R. A., 1969) and communication principles and processes of information systems (Goffman, W., 1973); (6) a means to the end of focusing understanding the nature of information and its interaction with people in a particular environment (Rosenberg, V., 1974); and (7) a discipline which encompasses the hypothesis of Shera's social epistemology, Young's biological exosomatic brain concept, and Popper's objective knowledge theory (Brookes, B. C., 1974). It considers information science as metascience (Debons), as its meaning (Whitemore, Yovits), as a signal (Shannon), as a structure on analytical and semantical levels (Otten), and as knowledge-understanding-wisdom (Kochen) (Rogers, A. R., 1984b).

Information science should be defined in rhetorical terms based on Heidegger's and Gadamar's hermeneutics, rather than in purely technical, heuristic terms that embrace ethics and politics (Capuro, R., 1991).

(b) Informatics.

Informatics was formulated to cope with insufficient information retrieval (Merta, A., 1969), and to reduce the information lag between inventions and their applications. It is a mission-oriented approach, and its subject matter consists of processes, methods, and laws relating to information activities rather than to information itself (Mikailov, A. I., et al., 1969).

Informatics is a scientific discipline reflecting scientific and technological levels of society and complex systems of social information processing (Kubatova, V., 1974); it is also a form of knowledge, separated from its producer. It is studied (1) as knowledge by information science and semiotics, (2) as a signal by cybernetics, and (3) as a component of control processes (Mikailov, A. I., 1983). As a semiotic discipline it is concerned with symbolic expressions and their manipulations (Pearson, C. & V. Slamecka, 1983).

Informatics maximizes communication for specific social objectives and purposes in distribution and organization of scientific information (Belkin, N. J., 1975). It is defined as (a) a discipline focusing on general laws and regularities governing the collection, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of scientific information (Mikailov, A. T., 1969), and (b) a study of the processes of transforming information into new knowledge.

Informatics is compared with ideology, interpreted as a systematic body of concepts and knowledge, as that which is symbolized in the communication (Gorn, S., 1983).

Both informatics and the science of sciences study relations between theory and practice in social sciences; they differ in focus: while the science of sciences converges on primary information, informatics concentrates on information transfer and dissemination of primary information (Dembowska, M., 1974).

Information system consists of data and the data's processing into information, knowledge, and wisdom (ethical judgment). It is a complex of phenomena studying information processes, managed and processed by librarians (Hayes, R. M., 1969).

2.8.3 Epistemological characteristics.

EP-Co: Characteristics of the concepts.

Lack of a clear definition of information science results in a variety of interpretations provided by different disciplines: (1) cognitive sciences stress linguistic, social, and philosophical aspects of the discipline, (2) socio-technological sciences concentrate on computer, library, information sciences, and management; and (3) systems science focuses on cybernetics, information, and system theories (Nitecki, J. Z., 1988b).

The discipline's purposes, contents, and availability vary with available resources, resulting in the decentralization of information systems (Dearden, J., 1987). The discipline is viewed as a cognitive science, informatics, history of artificial intelligence, linguistics, library and information sciences, cybernetics and history of information theory (Machlup, F & U. Mansfield, 1983a).

Together with logic and philosophy, information science deals with relevance as measurements of its effectiveness (Saracevic, T., 1975). It should include (a) relationships between natural and artificial systems (Suppe, F., 1985a), librarianship, social practice, and services, (b) client-agent relations, the primacy of communication, the nature of information content, and (c) its role in society and research (Schrader, A., 1986a). There is a need for a formal information science language (Debon, A., 1990).

Overall, information science contributed to: (1) the emergence of a new metascience, (2) differentiation between information science (containing pure and applied theories) and librarianship (as a profession), (3) provision of focus on cultural, social, and spiritual values, with management of knowledge as social resources, and (4) the introduction of informatics as a new discipline (Cook, G., 1976).

The ideology of information science determines its paradigms and the criteria for evaluation of its relevance (Wegner, P., 1983). Non-reductionistic and interdisciplinary interpretation of information science is based on cybernetics, semiotics, and controls (Brier, S., 1991).

Information theory is a necessary but insufficient aspect of information science because it deals with statistical properties of data only (Helprin, L. B., 1985). However, no theory in information science exists that would provide unique testable phenomena (Boyce, B. R. & D. H. Kraft, 1985). For example, Popper's model is rejected because of the impracticality of its falsification component, and because his concept of knowledge differs with each discipline (Rudd, D., 1984).

The model of information science is composed of computer science (data, software and hardware), management science (a normative base for the discipline), and organization science (focusing on functions of information system) (Swanson, E. B., 1987); it also includes information: its production, control, storage, retrieval, use, and bibliometrics (Neill, S., 1987; Olsgaard, J. N., 1989).

EP-Cx: Characteristics of the environment.

Information science can best be understood in a context of systems that study information- producing processes and methodologies in specific disciplines (McGarry, K. J., 1987). The environment of information science consists of scholarly contributions and sociological changes in attitude toward technological developments (Lilley, D. B. & R. W. Trice, 1989). Information science emerges as a factor in social development (Da Costa, A., 1990), and it may form a suprasystem that would unify art, sciences and professions (Harmon, G., 1973).

Major environmental phases in the development of information science include: V. Bush's hypothetical storing and searching device (1945), emergence of information scientists (1948), machine organization and search of bibliographies (1951), introduction of the uniterm index (1953--59), the first textbook in information science (1969), national and international policy analysis (1973), and the first handbook for online search (1984) (Herner, S., 1984).

EP-Pd: Nature of the processes.

Information science is contained in processing (computers and libraries) and cognitive systems (psychology, cybernetics, and operations research) (Mansfield, U., 1982). Inclusion of a computer in the discipline expands its scope and redefines its practice (Suppe, F., 1985).

Fundamental in information science is the facilitation of the utilization of records. Facilitation means an ability to organize action; utilization describes ways records can be used in conveying meaning (Lipetz, B. B., 1980).

2.8.4 Valuational assertions.

The evaluation of information systems is based on (1) volume of data available and on the spread of their transmission, (2) the reliability and adaptability of the system, (3) the authors' intentions, (4) the values of the system as perceived by its specific users and by the public in general (Stampre, P., 1988).

However, information science failed to serve ordinary people, and librarianship cannot guarantee reading satisfaction (Neill, S. D., 1973.) Information science may disappear because it is not easily distinguished from library and computer sciences (Wersig, G. & G. Windel, 1985).

2.9 Relationships between Library and Information

Sciences.

2.9.1 Metaphysical definitions.

Relationships between philosophy, science, librarianship, and information are studied by focusing on the concepts and scopes of these disciplines (Souza, S., 1986). However,

definitions of both library and information sciences are confusing, contradictory, and insufficient. Methods defining these field include: (1) empirical, based on self-evidence and observations, (2) conceptual, based on a priori logical analyses, (3) general systems, considering library and information science (LIS) as 'symbolic culture accessing systems' based on inquiries about social practice. Definitions of library and information science must go beyond empirical method, by focusing on scientific formulation of theoretical hypotheses related to social environment, logical, and conceptual inquiries of other disciplines (Schrader, A. M., 1983).

2.9.2 Epistemological characteristics.

a. General comments.

Librarianship is perceived as a process of fulfilling needs, stressing the activities rather than the subjects, and extending the study beyond the physical book, its storage, and its preservation. Broadly defined, the concept of information is the same in library and information sciences. Information science is not only a branch of librarianship in its study of information technology but also an emerging theoretical foundation for all information agencies in a new discipline of library information science (Stieg, M. F., 1992).

Concepts of information science are integrated with those of library science. Its philosophy, theory, and principles are relevant in both as parts of the discipline as a whole (Borko, H., 1984). Librarianship bridges the gap between information and its applications (Mathews, V. H., 1981).

The social role of information science was formulated by its relations to librarianship and to computer, cognitive, and communication sciences (Saracevic, T., 1991).

b. Similarities.

Both domains emerged from the humanistic environment, aiming at equilibrium between mind and spirit (Curras, E., 1985); and both developed later in a mechanistic world view of Newtonian physics, behavioristic psychology, and computers all of which based on the principle of atomic particles considered as building blocks of theory. However, these assumptions are now questioned because of uncertainty in the principles of quantum mechanics, relativity theory, and the subjectivity of empirical observations (Beagle, D., 1988). Hence, both domains are in transition but are seldom interpreted in historical context of selecting, organizing, and facilitating use of cultural records (Nitecki, J. Z., 1990).

Both library and information science (1) study human behavior in information exchange aiming at the creation of knowledge and ideas (Boyce, B. R., 1994); (2) embrace practitioners who are members of learned societies but are not scientists themselves; (3) share the same problems in designing and operating information systems; (4) are service-oriented, (5) are changing fast (Vagianos, L., 1972); and (6) should include post-documentation of electronically produced records, requiring new organizational criteria (Davenport, E., 1991).

Both approaches procure and handle information and apply new technology (Apostle, R. & B. Raymond, 1986; Bohnert, M., 1989). Information science is a part of library science, not a separate discipline; its claim to uniqueness has no empirical, philosophical, definitional, or sociological evidence (Houser, L. J., 1988). Librarianship always provided services and at the present has merely modified them by adding new hardware. Hence there is a need to add word 'information' to the name of the domain 'librarianship' (Stokes, R. B., 1969).

c. Differences.

Although both disciplines have the same basic objectives, they differ in the techniques used. Information science is independent of any particular environment, while library science depends on parental institution or community (Gates, J. K., 1990). Some writers maintain that these differences are in the type and extent of services offered, rather than in techniques employed (Rees, A. M., 1964a).

The following are the basic differences between the two domains. (a) In library science information is handled in a documentographic way, focusing on content, location, annotation, classification, and the indexing of bibliography and reference; information science handles information in factographic way, focusing on important aspects of documents reviews and abstracts (Koblitz, J., 1969). (b) Information science focuses on subject analysis of information electronic data processing, on principles of management, on sociology of knowledge and on subject bibliography. Library science focuses on interaction between patrons and ideas, the communication of recorded information, the origin of data, its production, growth, and organization, the user's needs, user motivation, and management (Caldwell, W., 1970). (c) Information science investigates properties and behavior of information, its organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, and utilization. Library science concentrates on storing and disseminating knowledge contained in documents (Borko, H., 1968). (d) While library science focuses on service, information science dwells on inquiry about library efficiency; both deal with information transfer (Wright, H. C., 1988). (e) Library science structures information sources; information science assembles, selects, correlates and analyzes the use of information (Pickup, J. A., 1987). (f) Library science concentrates on access, storage, and retrieval of information, and information science interprets these activities within the total recorded experience (Debons, A., 1985). (g) Shannon's code-message-channel is a black box of significance in informations science, and Fairthorne's source-designation-destination is a black box of librarianship (Bognert, L. M., 1974).

Information studies are interdisciplinary and include, in addition to library and information sciences management, computer science, communication, psychology, linguistics, and statistics (Large, J. A., 1988).

d. Library Information Science (LIS)

A newly emerging library information science (LIS) provides dual perspectives: (1) internal relationships between itself and information processes, and (2) external focus on activities in organizing information (Foskett, D. J., 1974).

(1) In the internal perspective, information is a content of communication; the library facilitates that communication by organizing records and information about them, and provides guides to the interdisciplinarity of knowledge (Allen, B., 1981).

Library problems exist mainly in physical access to records, but information science problems are cognitive, addressing the impact of changes on library patrons (Brookes, B. C., 1981).

Whereas library and information sciences focus on written records, and library science stresses their organization, information science covers the information-knowledge-wisdom relationships in these records (Kochen, M., 1983).

Librarians consider information as having a semantic meaning for its users, since it is acquired by them by being told about it; knowledge, on the other hand, is acquired by thinking about it. Information science is an inquiry, and library science a service, with books that are more than containers of information, since they include things other than information (e.g., in fiction) (Wilson, Pauline, 1988.)

(2) In the external perspective, the information profession includes librarianship, information systems, and resource management; it provides professional, educational, and disciplinary context and is considered a turf of informational operations (Donahue, J. C., 1987).

Information environment includes librarianship (preservation, access, and professional concerns), information science (theoretical study of physical and conceptual aspects of information), and information retrieval (users' interaction and search strategy). Schools of business administration focus on information management, operation research of general systems, and decision-making processes. Engineering schools concentrate on computer aspects of information (Hayes, R. M., 1994).

In the professional sense, past philosophical interest in librarianship had little effect on the profession; information science can help by contributing scientific methodology (Saracevic, T. & A. M. Rees, 1968). It incorporates librarianship, computing, communication, and related disciplines by focusing on knowledge, its characteristics, its acquisition, and its management (Foskett, D. J., 1972). It provides an interdisciplinary approach for addressing the consequences of the application of instructional technology to librarianship (Jackson, M., 1984).