URICCHIO, WILLIAM, 1994:

Although the author agrees that most of the issues related to social awareness of librarians are legitimate, "our involvement with social responsibility should be limited to that which allows us to achieve our pressing service and objectives."

(p. 576). The social issues in other countries, "except as they directly affect our business, are best left to critics who know what they are talking about and whose words will have a meaningful impact." (Ibid.).

URQUHART, DONALD, 1981:

The essay discusses eighteen principles of librarianship. (1) Libraries are for users. (2) Failures of information systems to satisfy users needs are not obvious. (3) Supply creates demand. (4) Users must be guided in selecting needed records. (5) Libraries must provide adequate access to required records. (6) Libraries have to be paid for. (7) Libraries must have regards for cost-effectiveness. (8) Information cannot be valued in monetary terms. (9) Libraries must have regard for the law of diminishing returns. (10) The best is the enemy of the good. (11) Unit cost of a particular activity should decrease as the magnitude of the activity increases. (12) No library is an island. (13) Planning library development should be based on objective data about users requirements. (14) In using new technology and systems it is necessary to look into future, not the past. (15) Library staff should work as a team. (16) A librarian's post is not a sinecure for a scholar - a librarian's task is often to facilitate the work of scholars. (17) Libraries can be valuable to a society. (18) Librarianship is an experimental science.

Laws of librarianship denote relationships, not all principles are laws and not all laws are principles. These relationships cannot be defined mathematically. Law of supply and demand depends on the user's expectancy and convenience.

The law of diminishing returns has no precise formulation: when it is operational it results in unit costs increasing as the resources increase, and it applies to most of the library activities. However the point at which it starts to operate, and the changing rate at which the extra returns diminish, can only be determined by observations.

In the past decisions on what ought to be done depended on opinions; some scientists believed that their opinions were sufficient to guide library decisions.

There is a difference between investigation and research; research in natural sciences means the use of scientific methods, social scientists learned how to use statistics but not when to apply them.

It is important to put research into librarianship and information science on a firm basis, by defining the aims of the research to (a) increase the flow of information to the user, (b) to improve the cost-efficiency of the information flow arrangements, and (c) to test the research applicability in practice.

The concept of 'fundamental research' could be concerned with the work of individuals' brain in relation to information stored in the memory.

US DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, 1988:

This report contains a number of questions related to the impact of changing technology on library and information science.

How do libraries fit into 'information society'? Which of the traditional library roles must be preserved? How can the library function as a center of intellectual activities in a community? What is the library role in lifetime learning, education, socialization, as community symbol, preserver of tradition? What is the commonalty among types of libraries? Should the library have a portfolio of functions instead of a mission statement? Should the library maintain an environment conductive to serendipity and conviviality? What are the factors influencing changes in library roles, and how libraries assimilate new roles? If there were no libraries, how would we design them to accommodate many factors?

Answers to these questions are provided from different perspectives determined by: (a) the library historical role, (b) prior research, (c) technological innovations, (d) the library's social mission, (e) the flow of information through society, (f) the economics of information, and (g) changing user's need.

Comments provided by some writers:

(a) Viginas and Lesser: On the nature of emerging information policy: it will require equality of opportunity and preservation of free and open democratic society to provide equal (economically and socially) access to information.

(b) R.M. Hayes: On the relevance of existing curricula in changing librarianship: new approach will include wide range of other information-oriented curricula.

(c) B.P. Lynch: Vocational training is less valuable than one in intellectual foundation. The traditional curriculum was focused on techniques, the future of librarianship rests on principles common to all specializations in the field

(d) P. Molholt: Discussed need for a provision of access to content by organizing information by online tables of contents, indices and structures in addition to traditional identification and location of material only.

(e) Cox and Cox: referred to archivist view what to preserve.

(f) J. Durrance: theory on information needs till now was descriptive, lacking clear definitions and the technology-driven research lacking interest in the behavior of individual. The traditional focus was mission-oriented and document-centered.

(g) B. Nielsen: New user instruction will focus on designing installation as contrasted with the traditional role of question answer mediation between user and desired information.

In setting a research agenda a number of issues were identified. (1) The properties of information, its impact on society, its dissemination and access. (2) Context of research on libraries, and information access. (3) Focus on (a) basic and theoretical (fundamental truths), (b) applied and pragmatic (solution of operational needs), (c) society centered (determination of needs and roles), and (d) policy oriented (decisions about resource allocation and priorities). (4) Forms to be investigated: (a) analytical (structures of relations), conceptual (ideas), (b) empirical (acquisition and validation of data), (c) historical, (d) bibliographic, and (e) technological.

The following research programs were suggested: (1) In information retrieval: theoretical, mathematical, architecture, and technical. (2) In linguistics and artificial intelligence: analyzes of documents for their retrieval (memory models, bibliographic control). (3) In database organization and quantitative methods. (4) In economics of information, its implementation, policy issues and networking. (5) In psychology: memory, learning, user information behavior, reading. (6) In communication: social psychological aspects. (7) The overall critique of library research for lack of rigor, inter-disciplinarity and for asking questions of little interest to other disciplines.

"The plain fact about information science . . . is that its practitioners do not know what they are talking about and are unable to describe the products they are trying to produce."

(p. 154-5)

"Let us adopt a posture similar to the practitioners of medicine as members of a learned society and not that of a group of scientists." (p.157) "Information scientists, librarians, information technologists, etc. are concerned with the design, installation, and operation of information systems." (ibid.) "Both fields are plagued with lunatic fringes of quacks . . . Both are confronted with cautious general practitioners who would avoid change. Both are service directed and both are changing rapidly." (ibid.) "We could still pick up and choose what we need from peripheral disciplines . . . we would be using scientific approaches and we would be developing and applying the latest techniques and the most recent machines to solve our specialized problems. " (Ibid.)

---- 1973a:

"The information utility calls upon us for change, both at the microscopic level of procedure and the macroscopic level of philosophy." (p.1879). "What librarianship must do is incorporate into its professional structure a pragmatic philosophy concerning the variety of the mix (people, information, and change) which is the essential medium of cultural transmission in the social brain." (Ibid.) "What becomes clear is the unique situation concerning culture transmission professionals, who are without effective political control in their operational systems." (Ibid.) "The philosophy of librarianship can no longer afford to be a philosophy of powerlessness." (Ibid.)

---- 1973b:

The author makes a distinction between synthetic first principles, considered ontological linguistic approximations, and analytic fundamental principles, "beyond which further principal reduction is not possible . . . only the latter can be known with any tautological certainty." (p.3610)

Fundamental principles at a given level of generality state that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This principle should apply to librarianship, its library staff, collection, organization and its users, each of which can upset the totality of the whole, qualitatively or quantitatively, as e.g., in case of poor library building.

To maintain the principle of the greater whole there is a need for a synergy between parts in library operations, and these parts must have a defined magnitude allowing for value comparisons between them and the whole.

"Librarianship seems to accept the Marxist credo that a change in quantity is a change in quality." (p. 3611) However, the poor definition of the numerical base makes the comparisons with other libraries untenable.

Therefore, "the power of a fundamental statement is measured by the number of different particularizations that can be generated from it." (Ibid.) For example, processing of information beyond the limit of human use is meaningless, and any library, even very harmoniously operating must find a proper balance between the library users and its operation.

VAKKARI, PERTTI, 1991:

"We need conceptual analysis of the discipline in order to outline its central articulations and basic concepts, as well as the relations between them. The way we articulate and demarcate the sphere of reality which is the object of our research will influence the choice of research strategies at a lower level. The outcomes are reflected in what are held as central areas of research, what problems are seen as significant and fruitful. They also influence the choice of theories, concepts and methods. Often the higher-level theoretical commitments are not the conscious solutions of an individual researcher. Thus a researcher does not deduce from these commitments certain conceptual-methodical solutions for a single study. Rather, the general conception of the discipline acts as a frame which constrains the researcher's solution." (p.3)

VAN DER LINDE, G., 1990:

In postmodern society the focus of liberal humanists on technological progress has been replaced by the notion of performativity, i.e., "the principle of maximizing output and minimizing input. As a result, knowledge has become a commodity which can be used to generate wealth." (p.249) This leads to the power struggle among academic disciplines for the marketability of their domain, by controlling the discourse within the discipline. "Instead of uncritically accommodating the performativity principle and viewing the academic library as a purely functional space, academic librarians should counteract the authoritarian deployment of power embedded in the idea of knowledge as commodity and capital." (Ibid.)

VAN NIEKERK, RONA V., 1985:

"All professions need a basic underlying philosophy that provides a statement of the purpose and direction of the discipline . . . some of the philosophies of librarianship that have been advanced and their common trends [are] synthesized into a possible foundation for a philosophy of librarianship." (p.178)

The author discusses marketing and management as components of a philosophy of librarianship. Needs are basic in human behavior; the library satisfies some of them by providing reading material and hence is involved in marketing information. They provide an intangible product (information) that follows marketing principles applicable to non-for-profit organizations.

Marketing, that expresses the needs of the patron, should be distinguished from selling; it is rewarded not by profit but by librarian's satisfaction.

Libraries are the stores of recorded information that reflect intellectual aspects of the community served. They communicate the content of their collections by transferring the message from the producer to the receiver, based on the understanding of the needs of individuals and their society.

"Marketing concept is compatible with current library philosophy [it] can be integrated into librarianship with confidence, as it is concordant with the principles of librarianship." (p.182)

VAVREK, BERNARD, F., 1968:

Reference service existed from its beginning without theoretical bases. The author's theory is summarized by the statement that all "activities which directly or indirectly affect the library must be considered as variables in the reference process." (p.500) And the reference service must be evaluated in the context of the total library. Referral process includes all library components, its books, librarians, patrons and physical library.

---- 1974:

Communication is a common denominator for all librarianship;

it attaches more importance to the human elements in reference service than to the knowledge of information resources.

Hence, "the introductory reference courses either totally or extensively should be redesigned to explore the dynamics of interpersonal communication." (p.215) Search methodology should be offered as an advanced course.

The knowledge function in reference work is a means not the end of its service, its primary role is to facilitate the interpersonal communication between library patrons and reference librarians.

VELTMAN, K., 1991:

The author discusses the philosophical implications of new media, by pointing out to the limiting impact of the speech and printed book on knowledge and communication, and the computer role in utilizing the multimedia capabilities.

VESTHEIM, GEIR, 1992:

This essay has been written in response to the criticism of the ideology of democratic enlightenment movement in the Scandinavian countries by postmodernists, who claims "no certitude, coherence or preestablished meaning for human or social life." (p.13)

The premise developed in the essay is that the highly industrialized societies need more enlightenment, not more information. The definition of enlightenment needs is a subject of philosophical, political and ideological interpretation.

"Contrary to the idea or concept of information, which is closely connected with the interests of the producers, the idea of enlightenment is anchored in the interests of the individuals or citizens in a society." (p.16)

The point made is "that the accessible information is interesting only to the degree that it is relevant for the aims of people's lives. When people are striving to reach a deeper understanding of themselves and their society, they need information that can 'highlight' their life situation . . . an enlightenment perspective that can relate detailed information to a life totality. Within this logic an information search is only one among several alternative means of becoming

enlightened, and of gaining insight and understanding." (Ibid.).

VICE, KATHERINE, 1988:

The concept of individual service is based on the realization that it is the individual patron, not the librarian, that initiates and defines library service in terms of his or her own information needs and interest.

The foundation of librarianship includes the principles of freedom of and access to information, knowledge sharing with library patrons and the commitment to client self-sufficiency.

"The orientation toward the client - toward use, access, and integration - however imperfectly realized, is not only a worthy aspiration but one of major importance in the increasingly fragmented world." (p.27)

VICKERY, B.C., 1970:

Librarianship is a stream of a continuous mediation between books and readers. Librarians must be good bookmen, know their users and be skillful craftsmen in linking various aspects of transfer of messages between persons. The transfer is a form of human communication, reflecting interpersonal behavior, a part of social psychology.

Librarianship includes the science focusing on understanding problems, technology providing means for solving them and the art of interpersonal communication. Research in librarianship is threefold, linking the issues related to books, readers and systems, on theoretical and practical levels.

---- 1975:

The discipline of library and information services is defined on three levels, as: (a) the intermediaries between the source and users, distinguished from mass and personal communication, (b) centered on documents, which are produced, reproduced and transferred for use, and (c) responsible for document analysis, storage, retrieval and distribution.

The three levels are interrelated within the structure of the transfer process or system as a whole, its organization, administration, and management.

Research can be subdivided into three categories: (1) practical study of organizational forms for service, (2) technical study or specific issues, and (3) scientific research stressing concepts, hypotheses and theories.

Academic research is focused primarily on scientific research. "The more elementary modes of investigation - descriptive rather than analytical - may be regarded as necessary steps that may lead towards the development of information science. But that science will only be established if firmly based theory can be constructed." (p.159)

---- 1986:

Knowledge representation applicable to information science may be viewed as: (1) semantic structures of sentences, or (2) knowledge base for reasoning.

In information retrieval the structuring of subject statements can be made by (a) assigning specific roles to each component of a subject statement, describing its participation in the subject statement; (b) assigning each term within the subject fields to a semantic category ('facet'), and (c) interposing between each pairs of component the relations between them (such as concurrence, distinctness or equivalence).

Knowledge representation in information (and in the library) fields are the bases for classification, in which the whole collection is divided into fields, each field into facets, each facet structured into a hierarchy; all combined (coordinated) and coded. Standard terms are listed in thesauri either as given, or reduced to semantically more primitive units.

Knowledge representation in reasoning provides for the inference in the 'if-then' formats, and is used in question-answering systems.

Computer-based retrieval system (a) amplifies the formal query and transforms it into the search statement, (b) searches databases and (c) reformulates unsuccessful search statements.

VICKERY, BRIAN C., and ALINA VICKERY, 1987:

Based on Howard White and Belver Griffith 'map' the authors visually summarized the contributions of major authors to information science. The map is divided into five major areas listing authors cited in Key Papers in Information Science, and other well-known writers, for the period between 1971 and 1978. All contributors are arranged in five major categories: Precursors, scientific communication, bibliometrics, generalists and document analysis.

Library and information services are defined as intermediaries in human communication, focusing on documents and their transfer. (a) Information is an unusual economic good: it can be used by giver after it is given away, and it is universally relevant as a contributor to other activities.

(b) Information science is defined as a study of the communication of information in society. (c) Information transfer contains all processes involved in transferring information from sources to users.

Information that is extracted from a message depends upon receivers' current knowledge It may only marginally relate to the intend of the sender either because it was not clearly expressed by the sender or was distorted by the channel. Relationships between sender and receiver of information can be improved by use of feedback.

Principles of information system guide its design and management. These principles are the extension of Ranganathan's five laws by the addition of the following laws: (6) save the time of the user, (7) no information system is self-sufficient, (8) each information service is only one part of the community's communication system, (9) user should contribute funds in relation to benefits perceived, (10) system should be cost effective and (11) it should be adaptable to change.

Information systems are only one of the existing channels for obtaining information; other channels include (a) foundation knowledge (family, education), (b) continuing and current channels (mass media, meetings, publications), and (c) on-demand information.

Sociology of communication focuses on mass communication, while sociology of education discusses social roles of educational agencies. There is a need for similar approach in informative communication that would include analyzes of purposes and performance of social aspects of information transfer, their channels such as libraries and information services, the context of information provision and its economics.

---- 1992:

The book is intended as a 'core' textbook in information science. It focuses on information transfer in a social context, relationships between information and individuals and the nature of information systems. Its main theme is the notion of information science as a unique discipline.

VINCENT, GEORGE E., 1904:

The author discusses the meaning of the library as a social institution bases on relationships between an individual and society. "To the individual the present has no meaning, save as past experience enables him to interpret it. In a true sense personality is memory . . . social group maintains its integrity only under the unifying influence of a common tradition communicated from generation to generation." (p.578)

Memory (a) is interconnected with the whole body through brain cells that preserve it; (b) it is closely related to the individual; (c) it must be retentive, well organized and made permanent and systematic for quick availability; (d) it must be active; and (e) it must be selective in preserving facts and images.

The library "in its very nature and function . . . is a cooperative and unifying agency. It is one of the means by which the social memory is put at the service of society." (pp.579-80). It is an active and democratic institution, its specialization corresponds to the social, intellectual and physical division of labor, its methods "provided a key for all modernly administered book collections, which makes every detail quickly available." (p.582) It exercises censorship as a social duty to select books based on their accuracy, scholarship, and literary value, but tempered by liberal attitude in suggesting tasteful selection of material.

Social aspects of librarianship are demonstrated in its service to individuals and in the distribution of knowledge and ideals, elaborated by social processes, thus helping to administer the social memory.

VINKEN, PIERRE, 1982:

Definition of information changes with the context in which it is defined. It is a message, data, knowledge, signal, representation, symbol or pattern that can be communicated.

In terms of economics, information activities are divided into (a) information producing activities, equipment and service, and (b) generation of information needed by the users. "In short, information is the end-product in the producing sector and merely a means in the user sector." (p.332)

The non-economic schools of thought maintain that information is not scare, it does not disappear or deteriorate, and its use increases its value by generating new information.

Economic view is based on the principle that any needed resource has a scarcity value, which in turn determines the economic value that depends on its relevance. The collection has a useful value only when it is structured. It is constantly changed or consumed, creating the scarcity of structured information ready for immediate use, it becomes obsolete with time by being less relevant.

"Information generates knowledge and knowledge generates information at a higher level. As a result, the previous information is superseded by new information of greater depth. The added value has created an improved product." (p.134)

Thus: (a) information is an economic commodity subject to the laws of supply and demand; (b) information and culture are interrelated; (c) the impact of information is greater on the developing countries, and (d) free market economy is based on competition that should not be limited by unnecessary regulations.

VLEESCHAUWER, H.J., 1960:

The author argues that terms such as 'librarianship' and 'philosophy of librarianship' are inexact and inappropriate, and should be substituted by terms such as 'library theory', 'library thoughts' and 'library science'. No single, all-inclusive definition of librarianship is possible because of its diversification and heterogeneous roles played in the society. The library is an instrument for the transmission of knowledge and ideas of the past to future generations.

The task of philosophy is to give a rational account of reasons for certain occurrences. Ethics offers not an explanation of things but the explanation of the meaning of their existence in any particular situation.

The deontology is based on some concrete phenomena pertinent to a given profession, its goals, and duties. In general, library deontology requires that a librarian have a spirit of idealism, be loyal to his profession, the aim of which is to serve the civilization and to study the history of the institution in which he works. Among the characteristics of a good librarian are: the sense of continuity, an alert, inquiring mind, respect for freedom of thoughts, good knowledge of human psychology, always treating the human beings as ends in themselves, and foremost, the objective of the library is not homogeneity but the individuality of all readers.

---- 1964-65:

Vleeshauwer discusses libraries in a historical context, relating them to the ideologies of the society in which they were created. His approach is evolutionary, based on the understanding of the historical origins (i.e., 'phenomenology') of the social institutions.

The modern public library, as a part of cultural policy aiming at general cultural uplift, is subject to state authority and its financial support. It differs from libraries in the past by its public character.

The concept of a public library, as a departure from the scholarly library emerged in the eighteen century as the result of liberal emancipation movement. Its focus changed from primarily preservation function to one of access, stressing utility and circulation.

"Every library [collection] . . . was founded to be 'read' and every library was used to that end. Means are devised to meet needs and not vice versa. It was only in the twentieth century that economics inverted the process, . . . but utilization, like freedom, is subject to a number of restrictions . . . the [historic] library always permitted usage to the extent that was justified and required by the current level of civilization ." (p.58) "The contemporary library is set on utilization to a far greater extent and in a far more pronounced fashion; and this means that it has a far stronger feeling for the social and civilizing function which all modern types of libraries within their own spheres recognize as their raison d'être." (Ibid.)

VOLOSHIN, METRO, 1988:

Economic forces are catalysts for technological innovations; as the steam engine germinated Industrial Revolution, the computer stimulated technical revolution.

The symbiotic relationships between information and technical means of collecting, manipulating, preserving and dispersing it, act as cross stimulation for each other, fostering self-generating growth.

The negative aspects include commercialization of information, issues of ownership and copyright; "the greater the flow of information in a society, the more valuable and profitable it becomes, therefore the more restrictions put on its movement." (p.12)

The technology erodes the already disintegrated fabric of human society, magnifying alienation. Marx introduced the concept of alienation as a gradual transformation of humans into thing-like beings in a capitalistic society, widening the gap between rich and poor, controllers and controlled, oppressors and oppressed. Technology does not flourish in a vacuum, but reflects and manifests both positive and negative aspects of society.

VON FOERSTER, HEINZ, 1982:

When the professional common bond erodes, specialization in the discipline increases, creating social dysfunction, and a corruption of the concept of knowledge, which, in turn, affects library functions.

The perversion of the concept of knowledge and the misconception of the social role of librarianship were created by confusing symbols with objects. "It is the confusion that presents the library as a repository of knowledge and

information. However, a library cannot store knowledge and information - only documents, books, maps, microfiche, slides, etc. When people use these materials they will become knowledgeable and informed. By obfuscating this distinction, knowledge and information can be made to appear as if they were commodities, to wit, the emerging 'knowledge industry'" (p.279) "With this the problem of how to know and how to let know are successfully pushed into a cognitive blind spot. We don't even see that we don't see." (Ibid.)

"Three facets of American reference theory in the twentieth century are especially important for conceptual approaches to effective reference service. First, basic assumption of maximum client-centered service was formulated prior to 1930. Early theories were acutely aware of the necessity to meet users' needs and purposes as fully as possible. Second, theories after 1930 misinterpreted the contribution of their forebears with the effect of suggesting that maximum service be a new, bold step in reference theory. The basis for new thinking was the 'information dogma' - a collection of assumptions related to the amount of 'specific information' provided to the users. Third, this dogma caused later theorists to deduce principles of service from these assumptions without sufficient attention to empirical findings. The result has been a climate of opinion in which inquiry into the concrete relationships among elements of reference service has been forestalled by doctrinal adherence.(pp.278-279)

Integrated reference theories must wait upon objective investigations into the forces responsible for successful practice of the reference function in libraries and information centers." (p.279)

WAGMAN, FREDERICK H., 1964:

The author reviews some arguments against freedom to read.

(1) 'Arguments for censorship' of obscenity (a) identify obscenity with immorality; this is a reductio ad absurdum, and (b) claim that there is a causal relationship between bad books and delinquency; this is a post hoc ergo propter hoc reasoning, lacking evidence to support the hypothesis.

(2) 'The cause of would be censor' is stated by liberals who limit the censorship of undesirable books to the young children, by eliminating the material from schools. Libraries should reflect the views of their communities. Wagman is concerned that attacks on obscenity as a nuisance lead to censorship of any ideas objectionable to any segment of society.

(3) 'Censorship, the scapegoat' strategy is to identify one objectionable cause and challenge the critics of this approach as subversive. However, the library is responsible to present all views, good and bad; democracy rests on the right of anyone to his or her convictions.

(4) Segregation by denying to different races access to libraries is racism that fails to see the library role in helping the minorities in their self-development.

(5) The scarcity of resources to buy library material is by itself economic censorship. "It is merely ironic to speak of the freedom to read in areas where there simply isn't anything to read." (p.479)

A recent revolution has completely changed the role and importance of libraries in society. "The increase in knowledge, the demand for intensified education for an ever larger part of our population, the inadequacy of the textbook as an instructional vehicle . . . and the heightened sense of the interrelationship of the many disciplines of knowledge - all given the book new value as an informational resource and have made the library not a substitute for, but an important part of, the entire educational system." (p.479)

"The responsibility of the library to our society is greater than that of almost any other social agency, for it makes available, in their full presentation, new ideas . . . they serve as the yeast in the ferment of change, aid our effort to understand what is happening to us, and help us as we try to determine the course we shall pursue." (p.477)

WALL, THOMAS B. (1992):

In discussing the epistemic relationships within library and information science, the author distinguishes between 'techne' and 'phronesis.' The techne are the principles or relational methods developing means for accomplishing the desired ends. The phronesis represents the disinterested understanding in determining the desired ends and means for attaining them. It is a distinction between information science's technical wisdom (techne) of doing or making something, and library science's practical wisdom (phonesis) based on the fundamentals such as freedom of and access to information required by the information needs of the pluralistic society and its individual members. The relationships between information and library sciences are between related, but distinct professions. They are summarized in the author's taxonomy of modes of thinking illustrating the different focus between library and information sciences: in theory (social vs. technological), in practice (service vs. productivity), in motives (egalitarian vs. profit), in application (services vs. efficiency) and in scope (libraries vs. anywhere)._

WALLACE, SARAH L., 1960:

"Machines and methods should be adopted only insofar as they further the Library's primary aim, the brining together of books and people." (p.23). "A librarian should be the bridge between reader and book." (Ibid.)

"Books are ideas. Ideas have changed our world."(p.70) "Let us have respect for the power of the ideas, which we handle daily . . . we are engaged in a battle of words, a battle of truth." (p.71)

WALTON, CLARENCE C., 1956:

The author makes a number of assumptions about the library and librarians missions. (1) Librarianship as a service profession must be responsive to patrons' needs. (2) Library public transformed the librarians' role from passive custodianship of books to the dynamic sharer of knowledge. (3) Librarians are responsible for putting knowledge to effective use. In the past, most of the library patrons were elite demanding quality over quantity of service. Today the patrons include larger segments of population with popular taste.

Nowadays, research focuses on team work, replacing invention by research method of expanding knowledge, requiring librarians services as a generalist, balancing the needs of different specialists. "The issues transcend boundaries and affect all librarians, all researchers, all managers, all engineers because it touches one's philosophy toward truth, its meaning, its acquisition, its purpose." (pp.122-23)

"One of the essential functions of managers is to . . . [understand that] librarians' zeal for truth must serve as an effective counterweight to the manager's enthusiasm to get things done. Freedom without truth is an illusion and truth without freedom becomes a cruel prison, Contemporary society's wants may not be its needs." (p.125)

WAPLES, DOUGLAS, 1931:

"I strongly approve a revival of the 'bibliothecal spirit' and belief it can be more promptly revived if we can find out more precisely what it is." (p.743)

"Bibliography and 'bibliothecal spirit' at best tell little more than what books there are and what the books are about. To tell what the books are worth one must know for what purpose the books have been or might be used . . . There is thus opened to the librarian an opportunity to extend his professional horizon by acquiring an acquaintance with readers comparable in system and adequacy to his present knowledge of books. As the bibliographer looks to the specialist in the given field of literature for sources and for methods of investigation, so the librarian concerned with a definition of reader's needs should look to the social scientist for equivalent sources and methods." (pp.745-6)

The author makes the following points: (1) the library profession has an obligation to society to acquire knowledge that justifies public confidence. (2) Librarians are able to satisfy needs of individual patrons. (3) The increased publications make the selection more difficult. (4) Library research of readers needs may simplify the problems of book selection. (5) It may contribute to the theory, even if its practical applications are not yet apparent.

"There is a need for both specialist and general practitioner. Of the two, the general practitioner is the less dispensable [but] there is a place for both types of schools that . . . will eventually bear directly upon vital problems of library administration." (p.746)

WARD, DAVID V. 1990:

The discussions of relationships between intellectual freedom and censorship suggest misunderstanding of the underlying principles, formulated by two basically ethical theories: consequential and deontological.

Consequential theories are represented by the utilitarianism, holding that right action is determined by its outcome in producing good consequences: the best action is the one that produces the greatest amount of good, for the greatest number of people. This theory is based on the risk-benefit analysis. Its best known proponent is J.S.Mill.

Deontological theories maintain that the right action is determined by factors other than its consequences, such as the intends, justice, and duties. Its representatives include Kant (the first deontologist) and W.D. Ross.

The objection to consequential principles is the notion that right action or decision is more important than its utility. The major criticism of deontological approach maintains that not all that is right is also most desirable.

Censorship is undesirable because of its consequences, (a consequential argument); or because people have rights to express their thoughts, independently of the consequences (an deonotological argument based on the principle of intellectual freedom).

The librarian's role here is to articulate the consequential reasons for not censoring the undesirable books, but he or she must also "acknowledge the public's rights to be selective about what it wants in libraries it pays for." (p.90). The argument based on intellectual freedom is stronger than the one based on long lasting consequences of censorship. However, in cases where there is no issue of intellectual rights, J.S.Mill's defense of freedom of expression formulated in terms of destructive consequences in denying it, is equally persuasive. Censorship, he states, denies in advance the possibility of truth of censored opinion, by usurping the authority to decide for others what is right or good, on the assumption of censors' own infallibility.

WASSERMAN, PAUL, 1969:

There is always a tension between theorists and practitioners. "Many would argue that without theory or philosophy, practice is ultimately ritualistic and bankrupt. But in librarianship the lead/lag relationship, whether in conceptual or even practical ideology, still tends too often to be reversed, with practice in the vanguard and education." (p.1282)

"The function of a professional school is not . . . to impart a narrowly defined set of skills of the kind measured by examination, but to define a set of criteria which individuals entering the profession ought to meet and to screen out those who do not measure up against such a yardstick." (p.1283)

In the fast changing environment, library and library education must change. The process is difficult to implement because of anxiety and insecurity.

"Doing the work which the culture requires of us must be our overriding concern. It is toward such a goal that our change must be oriented." (p.1288)

---- 1972:

Wasserman argues for a change in the focus of librarianship from mere custodial function to a more specific and viable ends. The lofty ideal of collection development must be challenged as not sufficient.

The argument is developed in the historical context, and is based on the belief that librarianship is an organized creed that functions within the context of an institutional hierarchy.

The call for a change is to reinforce the importance of the information service role of librarianship. The opposition to changes comes from the 'wait and see' philosophy. Yet, both philosophy and values relate to ethical choices, which in turn require initiative and leadership.

There is a need for leadership focusing not only on the traditional roles of librarianship but also to develop a more effective client system of library services.

WATSON, L.E., and others, 1973:

"The growth of social sciences has necessitated the development of formal systems of information storage, retrieval and dissemination over and above any informal and personal contact between individuals. The contributions of information scientists . . . raise certain questions about the epistemology of the social sciences. The writers examine these and some of the major problems related to the communication of information in sociology. They postulate a model derived from recent thinking in the sociology of knowledge, based on the notion that the construction and validation of knowledge is itself a social process." (p.270)

The essay postulates basic propositions concerning retrieval systems. (1) Knowledge is not independent of the knower, but is based on the social context within which it is generated and used. (2) Perspectives are developed in terms of shared understanding, often not available to an external observer. (3) "An adequate indexing system should provide an opportunity for the user, through interaction with the system, to construct his own perspectives . . . this position is very different from the matching process assumed by the majority of the existing systems in which a user's orientation and the system orientation are seen as being explicit, explicable and compatible." (p.281) "The really effective retrieval system depends on an active and ongoing partnership between information scientists and subject experts." (Ibid.)

WEBB, TERRY D., 1987:

Reorganization of libraries is based on either the responsive or demonstrative philosophy, This duality of approach illustrates diversity among libraries and a divergence in innovative and traditional interpretation of the discipline. Each of the approaches becomes an intuitive aspect of the manager's personal philosophy of librarianship, rather than the attitude based on selecting specific approach in terms of library mission, public served, orientation of the parent institution and available funds.

The distinction is illustrated by library managers response to automation. In innovative approach a separate department is organized with full responsibility for its operations and increasing complexity of library structure. In the demonstrative approach responsibility for automation is assigned to an existing department, creating problems of organizational autonomy and budgetary support.

The issue "concerns the professional philosophy and ethics of librarianship. A library . . . is an articulation of the philosophy of librarianship, a philosophy based on a commitment to service and free access to information for all. Each library articulates that philosophy differently, and the articulation changes over the time based on the needs of the users, the conditions of the institution and the talents and personalities of those involved. Accompanying this philosophy is the simple assumption that . . . librarians can best be relied on to provide library service." (p.54)

This assumption is challenged. "Herein lies the source of the divergence between the responsive and demonstrative approaches to library reorganization and the accompanying split in the underlying professional orientations toward innovativeness and traditionalism. Libraries are no longer fully convinced that they know what is best for their public."(Ibid.)

The responsive approach is the catalysts for change, the demonstrative approach preserves the status quo.

WEGNER, PETER, 1983:

Mature science is based on a paradigm that prescribes acceptable research. Coexistence of multiple paradigms indicates a pre-scientific stage of a discipline such as information science. In this stage there is a close relationship between ideologies and paradigms. A distinction is made between knowledge-oriented activities (mathematics), action-oriented activities (farming) and activities transforming knowledge into action (education, engineering). Informatics was initially action-oriented (practical) and is now in the second stage of fusing action-oriented and knowledge-oriented activities.

The ideology of a discipline determines its paradigms and criteria for evaluating its quality and relevance. Its methodology is the principles that underline tools and techniques used in accomplishing its goals. Its sociology includes social interactions among practitioners and the social impact of its concepts and products on society.

Computer science is the study of phenomena related to computers. It was interpreted as (a) action oriented, empirical view held in 1950s, (b) algorithms, and information structures, knowledge oriented, mathematical view of 1960 and 70s, and (c) the management of complexities view of engineering of mid 70's.

Software engineering is a fusion of action and knowledge oriented activities, motivated by economics of cost. The industrial revolution of 1750-1950 harnessed energy to serve man by developing machines to replace manual labor; the information revolution of 1950's harnesses information to serve man by developing machines that replace mental labor.

Knowledge engineering is defined as the application of systematic techniques to the management and use of knowledge. Artificial intelligence deals with problems requiring knowledge of experts to solve them, it amplifies human knowledge rather than substituting for human intelligence.

Computer knowledge is precise and detailed. Human knowledge is concerned with organization for people who have contextual understanding and ability to conceptualize at the level above the computer.

"Information science has a special, intimate relation to knowledge, both because subdisciplines like artificial intelligence are concerned with the mechanistic modeling of knowledge and because knowledge engineering provides a tool for managing knowledge that offers our only hope for controlling the knowledge explosion. Moreover, computers provide a new dimension for communication among community of scholars that could fundamentally change the sociology of creating and using knowledge in all academic disciplines." (p.175)

WEI, ANTHONY, 1979:

Lack of a philosophical or theoretical framework prevents clarification of library relations with other disciplines. As a result, library science is only library service, and librarians positions are not clearly defined. This is true especially in academic field.

WEINBERG, ALVIN M., 1964:

"Science, in response to the information crisis, is

undergoing a hierarchical social reorganization, and . . . this social organization will impose a corresponding hierarchical organization on our scientific information system. The central element in this organization [is] the information center and one of its chief customers, the theoretical scientist. " (p.463)

"The specialized information center [is] not a technical library: it is more nearly a technical institute since in its ideal form it creates new science." (p.467)

The center depends on librarians retrieval, storing, and cataloging library materials and on their assistance in directing the user to the existing compilations rather than to the primary literature.

Both the center and the scientist use the inductive method: they collect and correlate many disparate facts and identify regularity in the seeming diversity.

In "the successful inductions all share the same pattern: the data is amassed; it is systematized; someone worries very hard and very long about it and, with luck, discovers regularities." (p.466)

WEINGAND, D.E., 1984:

This collection of essays discusses some philosophical issues relevant to librarianship.

(1) There is a shift in marketing philosophy from 'selling' to 'satisfying' the client and from 'profit' to 'exchange'.

Marketing is defined as analysis, planning, implementation, evaluation, evolution and control of programs designed to bring voluntary exchanges of values with target markets (library patrons) for the purpose of achieving organizational (library) objectives. The library must define its mission and goals, analyze the market (its segmentation) of users and nonusers in terms of their needs. [Ann J. Mathews]

(2) Marketing with strategic planning provides a practical and philosophical foundations for library and information services.

The shift in library philosophy is in the planning and structuring resources and services for changing community environment. This approach replaces professional intuition, by focusing on the utility, behavioral and psychological impact, and end-use variables of the patrons needs. [ M.Keith Ewing]

(3) Behavioral learning theory calls for a change in the library concept of a customer. Distinction is made between external and self-motivating motivation (existing prior to, or as a result of promotion).

Library users are self-motivated, perceiving value of books prior to the promotional program, the nonusers are not self-motivated. [Judith B. Ross]

WEINTRAUB, KARL J., 1961:

"The librarian's overwhelming quantitative problems will demand his attention and tax his ingenuity. But . . . massive complications in bibliographic control, information retrieval, cataloging, housing, and circulating books interfere with vital tasks . . . of becoming quality-minded guardians of man's accumulated productivity." (p.12)

"Scholars are the first to object if the librarian arrogates to himself the right of access to man's written world, and in a free and democratic society there is a very substantial problem involved in such a conception of the library task." (Ibid.)

The objections will be minimized if the librarians make the utmost effort to provide their users with the reading material of highest quality based on the level of judgment similar to that of other intellectual or artistic professions. Ortega envisaged the librarian as a filter between the massive publication of various qualities and their readers.

WEISKEL, TIMOTHY C., 1986:

"Process, perhaps even more than form, constitutes the defining characteristics of life-system." (p.545) "The commonsense contrasts between structure and function, morphology and physiology, form and process are not ultimately defensible when life-systems are viewed over time. At any moment it may be true that form, morphology, and structure all contain process, physiology, and function, but in the long run the former attributes express the latter. Form is the residue of process." (Ibid.)

The library is a processual object; it contains consultable documents, which when read are subject to the communication processes. What one obtains from the book is information.

Information is a non-random arrangement of matter and energy, a negative entropy, thus not itself a matter or energy but their differential states; information is not a 'thing' but a relation between things.

New technology in generating, storing and transmitting information radically changes the flow of information and the intellectual life-forms served by libraries. Dealing with these changes in terms of 'things' results in focusing on cost/efficiency rations or tradeoffs, disregarding patrons intellectual needs.

"Library's essential task is to arrange the objects to favour the metabolic processes of thoughts. To feed the life of the mind the scholar devours this ordered information, reformulating it and arranging it again in yet another objects which the library must in turn arrange anew, making them available to nourish the life of yet other minds. Since in all of this the life functions of the scholar and the library are reciprocal, their coevolutionary fates are one." (p.562)

WELLARD, JAMES. HOWARD, 1934:

"A solution to the apparent incompatibility of the two points of view - the scientific approach and the practical method based on expediency and assumption - may be found in the synthesis which ought in the nature of thing to follow the analysis . . . in the interpretation of the raw data and the application of the resultant theory to practice. And this is what is meant by the deductive or philosophical approach - an approach which neither distrusts facts nor is blinded by them, but which seeks to fit them into the changing library order." (p.207)

---- 1937:

The author proposes a social theory of book selection based on the library as a social force with social functions and obligations, and on historical review of objectives of education and recreation.

The hypothesis of this dissertation is that the growth of the public library was influenced not from below by the majority of common men, but from above by wealthy minority, hence not reflecting social forces. Shera disagreed: philanthropy didn't create need for public libraries, but responded to the already existing demand for them.

---- 1940:

The objectives of librarianship are to support democracy and to improve the society by raising level of intelligence and knowledge of its clients.

"In contradistinction to all other popular print-distributing agencies, the public library is social and educational in purpose: not, however, in the formal manner of school or university extension work.

It is not concerned solely with the diffusion of knowledge,

but with the intellectual improvement of those groups which most need it and have the least opportunity of getting it. The recognition of this principle is what we mean by the philosophy of librarianship; and the practice of it constitutes the sociology of the profession.

The political position of the library, its social relationships, its place in the general field of knowledge, technical and professional considerations, can all be brought together for the fulfillment of this objective, which springs from the human values implicit in the democratic creed." (p.160)

WELLISH, HANS, 1972:

"The evolution of the name Information Science (IS) is traced from the beginnings of 'Library Economy' up to the emergence of 'Informatics.' The terminology of 39 definitions of IS is compared in order to find the common concepts of this science and its central topic of investigation. The comparison shows that no consensus exists among the practitioners of IS about what it is or should do. The concept 'information' has also been variously defined for the purposes of IS, but no generally acceptable definition has been formulated so far.

The discipline called IS had not yet attained the status of a true science, lacking an agreed-upon central topic of investigation and an unambiguous terminology (as well as other attributes of a science). The name Informatics, which is already in wide use in other countries, should possibly be adopted for the discipline that might yet evolve into a true science." (p.157)

---- 1979:

Bibliographic control is defined as "a mastery over written and published records which is provided by and for the purposes of bibliography." (p.41)

Wilson made the distinction between (a) descriptive control of formal and physical characteristics and (b) exploitative control, a mastery over its subject content. Its purpose is to provide basic bibliographic data on all publications issued in all countries.

Cybernetics concept of control and communication in the animals and in the machine, relates to the control of bibliographic processes which obey fundamental laws of cybernetics, the Law of Requisite Variety (only variety can destroy variety).

The issue of relevance judgment by the user and indexer relates to two different notions of relevance: (1) relevance as 'being of the same topic', and (2) retrieved document starts in the mind of a user a new train of thoughts, in which an original document was relevant as a stimulus.

Authors conclusion is that only the descriptive, transcriptive and ordering functions of the bibliographic control system can be fully controlled; the content-oriented retrieval function, based on a subjective judgment of relevance by indexer and the user are not completely controllable.

WENGER, KATHLEEN, 1982:

The author asks librarians to demonstrate human and social concerns above that required of a system operator. System approach to library management ignores service aspect, yet service is the librarian's raison d'être, and any collection, if not used, is irrelevant.

Selection is a human operation based on anticipated needs and implicit standards of literary acceptability, durability or attractiveness. Instead of devising rules with people in mind and then impose them on a machine, it's better to have a compromise in a planning stage by providing widest possible access, with librarian bridging machine-human communication gap.

WENGERT, ROBERT, 1991:

The author identifies two basically opposed approaches to

ethical discussions: (a) Absolutism maintains that things that are right are always so, independently of circumstances, and (b) Relativism claims that what is right or wrong depends entirely on how one feels about the issue. What in a given situation is right for one person may be wrong for another.

There are also two styles of reasoning in ethics: (a) Result oriented, consequential, teleological theories evaluate the action in terms of its consequences; e.g., Utilitarianism maintains that one should do whatever will bring the greatest welfare to all concerned, and (b) the nonsequential, deonotological theories insist that certain things ought (or ought not) be done regardless of the consequences; e.g., Contractualism states that "an act is wrong if it violates those constraints which any rational person, considering the matter in a way which favours no one's particular interest, would agree " to be wrong. (pp.115-18)

WERSIG, GERNOT and ULRICH NEVELING, 1975:

Information science did not develop out of other disciplines, but out of a practical need of documentation, or 'information retrieval', with contributions from many other disciplines.

The authors identify six different meanings of information and believe that information science must be defined in relations to information needs of people involved in social activities as either reduction of uncertainty caused by communication data, or

as data used for reducing it.

WERSIG G., and G. WINDEL, 1985:

"Information science is in severe danger of fading away before it has started to flourish . . . Neither methodological principles nor construction of systems or services are serious enough to distinguish information science from either library education or computer science." (p. 22)

"People are not searching for information because they are 'information men' or because there is an in-built mechanism for information searching or because they are fully rationalized but they are acting in their environment because there are discrepancies to be dealt with . . . knowledge very often could be replaced by some other source of actions like values, aesthetics, feeling." (Ibid.)

The term "'information action' is more comprehensive, more realistic, and more powerful model than 'information man'." (Ibid.)

WHITE, DAVID A., 1978:

The author criticizing Wright's The Oral Antecedents of Greek Librarianship (1977) for its methodology and doctrinal substance. He faults Wright for using secondary sources only, never citing Greek philosophers directly. This results in relying on specific interpretation of their philosophies by others. Furthermore, White questions Wright's choice of authorities and his misrepresentation of the Platonic notion of form: Platonic two worlds (absolute reality: the forms, and continually changing derivative reality) display different degrees of reality. They relate to each other through participation; how can constantly changing things 'participate' in a world of unchanged forms? Plato's own answer to this question is still a matter of considerable controversy among philosophers.

To Wright, 'to inform someone' means to 'create form in' that person. But Plato's forms are never created, they simply are. How "is it possible to 'create' form in someone when that someone is in the process of being 'informed'?

"In the Platonic scheme of things, information can be properly called knowledge only on condition that the content of the information is directly related to the apprehension of the reality of the world of forms." (p.377)

Plato would probably not approve some of the cardinal principles of librarianship. For example, he believed that some people should not read some kinds of writings, because they are not ready for them. According to Socrates books are at best "a means of reminding those who know the truth." All writing, according to Plato, should reproduce the truth, while librarians believe that different writings address different truths.

White recommends some skepticism about "absolute truth," since it implies censorship.

---- 1980:

White stresses the importance of understanding the extends to which changes impact on library operations, by distinguishing between factual and value statements. 'Value' is not a simple expression of personal preference or taste but a realm of possibility.

The central point of this paper is the notion that the theoretical reasons in library literature are philosophically inadequate. "A complete analysis of the various aspects in the theory of librarianship will require more extended speculative inquiry." (p.302)

WHITE, D.A. and T.D. WILSON, 1984:

The authors discuss the Domain Theory developed by Kouzes and Mico. "The domain is defined as a' sphere of influence or control claimed by a social entity." (p. 180). The theory consists of three distinct domains: policy. management, and service.

"Policy domain refers to the organizational level at which governing policies are formulated . . . [it] involves mediation with the community at large." (p.181) The model represents participative management, based on the consent of the governed and equity value.

The management domain "is concerned with the control of the organization's functions. It has dual function - mediation between the organization and the external situation and 'administration' of the organizations internal affairs."(Ibid.) Its function is to facilitate technical and service aspects of the operations. This bureaucratic model is based on hierarchical control, stressing cost efficiency, effectiveness and coordination.

Service Domain is client-oriented and has "two distinctive characteristics: self-autonomy and client-orientation."(Ibid.) Quality of care and professional standards are the criteria used to measure the success of this domain. This is a collegial model, aiming at quality of service and problem-solving.

The Domain model is recommended "as a basis for examining library organizations, although it cannot provide proof of its 'truth'" (p.184) It is based on direct observations of managing styles in different environments. "'Grounded theory' generated from experience and observation in organizations may have more to offer a field characterized by its 'pre-theoretical' nature than 'derived theory' where ideas are extracted from previous work without adequate exploration of their applicability." (Ibid.)

WHITE, HERBERT S., 1978:

Since library service is not costless, deprivation of information because of inability to pay is unacceptable. The argument that the library is self-evident is not good enough. The advocacy of patrons self-service by using the library resources themselves diminished the quality of information service, and the past library emphases on the priority of collection development versus service is now hurting the library since service is more important in resource sharing environment, than a unique collection.

"We must stop thinking of the library as an end in itself, and think of what the library is supposed to be doing." (p.337)

---- 1983:

Over quarter of a million of people are professionals working in libraries and information science. Tendencies to provide definitions for minimal competencies in the field are dangerous. The key is to distinguish between training and education. In most cases nonprofessional activities of librarians are caused by shortage of clerical positions, resulting in clerical duties taking precedence over professional duties. This is 'retrofitting: fitting facts to conclusions already reached. In most fields education precedes training, with training occurring on the job, and through seminars or workshops.

One of the reasons of disagreement between library educators and practitioners is a different concept of value: practitioners do not want candidates to be educated, but trained, and educators follow that preference, because otherwise their students would not find jobs in libraries.

"In a free and uncontrolled environment, the ill-prepared and less competent will always drive out the competent: the less competent are more plentiful and cheaper [There is a] need to develop basic competencies and differentiate as to whether they should be acquired by education or training." (p.524) Furthermore, _seven years of experience is not the same thing as one year of experience repeated seven times." (p. 525)

---- 1985:

White differentiates between (a) participative management, allocating the decision-making and responsibility for it to committees, and (b) consultative management, as an input to the management decisions.

Participative style is at best a delegative process, at worst an abdication of responsibilities. The consultative style requires explanation for the decision made, particularly if it contradicts solicited advice.

"What the Japanese worker has and cherishes is some control (often through a group process which is participatory) over how he works to accomplish what management has told him to accomplish." (p. 63)

Libraries "embrace or allow themselves to be coerced into accepting objectives for which there are no resources, no plan, and no hope of success." (Ibid.) "What we owe our subordinates is a chance to work as they feel comfortable working as long as the outcomes . . . are acceptable, and an opportunity to individualize their jobs for both accomplishment and the feeling of accomplishment" is present. (Ibid.)

---- 1986:

By pleading poverty librarians run the risk of annoying their supporters. They are unable to generate political power among friends who will fight and take risks on library's behalf.

One strategic error is that librarians ask for too little. "Libraries must find a more pluralistic role. It must broaden its constituency. It must find a way to make itself and its activities indispensable to the work and life habits of a wider constituency, particularly of those who make the decisions which control our resources." (p.50)

"We must create a perceived imbalance in the public mind between what we do and what we should do. We must generate a demand for services we cannot now provide. We must then direct the glamorizers for most of this service to those who have power." (p.51)

All libraries "operate in the political arena, because politics is the process of making decisions, of allocating resources that are always insufficient to meet the expressed demands." (Ibid.) Librarians like managers will get credit only for innovation and marketing, "because successful continuation of the status is assumed, and earns no credit." (Ibid.)

---- 1990:

Ethics requires self-discipline, librarianship required it even more so because the field is to a large degree unaccountable. Might doesn't make or justify right, but right (particularly our own truth) doesn't justify might.

Truth is an opinion formed beforehand, a verified, indisputable fact; principle is a fundamental law or truth, bias is a particular tendency that prevents unprejudiced consideration.

Professionalism can't claim altruism, only selfish gains. Professionals accept the discipline of behaving evenhandedly. Librarians are not neutral, many of them just suppress their feelings as an act of discipline while at work. Thus librarians, as professionals, should not take a stand on social issues that are not directly related to librarianship.

---- 1990a:

This is a critique of current librarianship for lacking mission and satisfying users' wants rather than needs. Library changes its meaning, by shifting from libraries without librarians to librarians without libraries. Because librarians cannot or will not define their mission, public libraries fluctuate with society's whims, academic libraries serve as warehouses, and school libraries exist in never-never land. Public thinks of libraries not librarians; the term 'library' changes its meaning with changing social values and pressures.

We are still emphasizing 'what the library does' (we have goals but no objectives), trying to do everything, focusing on people who 'need' us more rather than on those who have alternatives in getting information outside the library. We talk about information as a fuzzy quality, while others see it as a profitable commodity, a return on investment. Management is the most important course in library education: it teaches how to get and administer needed resources.

WHITEHEAD, JAMES MADISON, 1980:

This dissertation is concerned with the development of a philosophy and methodology for library and information science.

The author criticizes library and information science for (a) a lack of universally accepted philosophy of librarianship, and philosophical building blocks and (b) for its methodology. His own methodology is derived from the oral history technique, (similar to Delphi technique, but with added feedback) called by him a humanistic method. It is illustrated by mythological dialogues with some library leaders aiming not for a consensus but for clarification of their concept of libraries' sine qua non. It resembles Socratic dialogue's inductive method.

'Bibematics' is the study of monads, how information can be combined or transformed, leading to new discovery. Since knowledge is subject to constant change, it is considered an error, to be corrected by future discoveries. The meaning of experience is reason and the meaning of reason is experience. His philosophical logos of librarianship distinguish between two kinds of philosophies: empirical to rational, and rational to empirical.

What philosophy is can be found only by doing philosophy. Historical background consists of Greek dualism (mind and matter versus idealism and materialism), Platonic dialectics (question and answer method), and Hegel's dialectics (thesis, antithesis, resolution).

An idea develops into a philosophy by means of common notions. Form and substance interact, producing laws. Functions such as cataloging or reference are forms operating on the substance of library and information science, while functional divisions produce functional organization of the library into departments. In the dichotomy between empiricism and rationalism the author focuses on relative pragmaticism (a rational equivalent of logical positivism).

Philosophy of library and information science cannot be defined. It can only be done. Whitehead divides philosophy of librarianship into three periods.

(1) Early period (till 1933) is subdivided into three subperiods: Colonial (up to 1850) student-librarian focus on intellectual self-improvement, and Librarian-teacher (1850-1933) and public library movement.

(2) Classical period (1933-1940) includes Butler's sociological school of thought that considers the librarian as a scientist, sociologist, psychologist, and historian. Butler's humanism focuses on the service based on the notion that thought precede service.

(3) The modern period (1940-to date) is divided into five sections: (a) 1940-45: it is represented by political scientists and poet, McLeish's defense of democracy. (b) 1945-50: the focus is on linguistic methodology in philosophy of classification (Daily). (c) 1950-60 is a period of applied mathematical approach of Shannon and Weaver, stressing irrelevance of meaning and information theory. (d) 1960-70: period is dominated by Ranganathan's five laws; and (e) 1970-present is represented by Shera.

Major philosophical notions are expressed by the participants in the mythical dialogue. (a) Ortega y Gasset talks about purity of information as means for screening undesirable books. The author is defending the form of material (book) rather than focusing on the worth of the institutional function. (b) Trezza emphasizes equal opportunity of access to all libraries for anybody who wants it. (c) Licklider focuses on scientific procedure to organize and make material available; the substance does not matter. (d) Lorenz singles out importance of informal education through the library, while (e) Daily sees the importance of the library not in ethics but in science and professionalism. (f) Debons maintains that the primary concerns of librarians ought to be the logistics of managing the information. (g) Kent concentrates on methodology in search for solutions of 'unsolvables' by a study of a transfer coefficient in the information process. (h) Shera argues for optimization of the utility of graphic records of benefit to individuals and through them to the society.

WHITEMAN, P., 1988:

Value is the intrinsic worth or goodness of things, that which renders anything useful. The history of librarianship illustrates respect for books as a physical embodiment of the knowledge and ideas; closely linked to it is the idea of a library as a storage of books. Both, reverence for books and collection building are the two sides of the same coin. For long time librarians did not consider service as a part of their role, presently there is a shift from preservation to the user, considering the library a cultural and educational institution.

The concept of the universality of service, Ranganathan's Second Law (books are for all, or every reader his book) goes back to 1590s when Thomas Bodley believed in full access to a library by bona fide scholars and contemplated opening Oxford library to all students. Recently, Brian Vickery introduced the another law to Ranganathan's Five: No library can stand alone (1964), thus embracing the idea of interlibrary loan, cooperative acquisition and storage.

The issue of general cultural value of the library originated as a part of humanities-based tradition and is currently changing to the issues of management and information system. In the area of social responsibility librarians maintained neutrality in providing requested materials without taking sides. Often neutrality was used as a synonym for playing safe, avoiding challenge of controversial issues. This is changing by accepting responsibility for highlighting social and political issues of the day.

The library recognized inadequacy of focusing predominantly on individuals' needs by concentrating on educational issues of minorities and mass culture. Foskett's 'no politics, no religion, no morals' (1962) stressed that the store need a key; the librarian provides it, but should vanish as an individual person, and become reader's alter ego, immersed in that person's politics, religion and morals. The old values are now under thread from powerful politics of diverse interests of computer, information science, market specialists, mathematicians, and managers. The ultimate aim of information - to inform - become less important, information technology occupying larger part of library school curricula, and library budgets on computers increases, in an overall increased competition for limited resources.

WHITSON, WILLIAM L., 1994:

"Libraries today must adapt to a combination of changes so unprecedented and fundamental that our future is in question. Survival depends on identifying our unique role: what we do that no one else can or will. I believe that the unique role of libraries has always been an economic one: what I call 'providing subsidized access to shared resources.'" (p.426) The unique, value added role of library is threefold: (1) a provision of access to resources, if necessary at pro rated fees, (2) a user-friendly gateway guiding the user to the relevant resources, and (3) assistance to patrons in finding and using requested information.

WHITTAKER, KENNETH, 1977:

Although libraries began to offer reference and information services in the late nineteenth century, they were not based on any theoretical concepts.

The first real step in the theory formulation was in 1930 when Wyer in the United States examined various attitudes of librarians toward assistance to readers. (p.49)

Between 1930 and the present day, in spite of some progress in other areas of librarianship, the theory of the reference, is still neglected. An outline for such a theory is proposed; it includes nature, purpose and scope of reference service, its terminology and relationship to other subjects.

WHITTEMORE, BRUCE J. and MARSHALL YOVITS, 1973:

Information is defined in terms of decision-making. It incorporates communication level of Shannon_s theory, the technical accuracy, semantical meaning and effectiveness in its impact on the behavior of the recipient of communication.

The components of the model of information theory consist of: (1) information, acquisition and dissemination, (2) decision making, (3) execution, and (4) transformation. The decision-making model is made up of the relationships between action, outcome and goal.

WIEGAND, WAYNE A. 1986:

Although library education went through considerable changes in recent times, "the analytical framework applied here and grounded in the most recent scholarship on the professions suggests that the changes have not been fundamental in nature. Character, expertise, and institutions have shifted with the times, but apparently not the source of authority around which the other three revolve. Curricular modifications have generally followed the dynamics of a changing environment affected by the outside forces like the introduction of new technology and improved methods of administration." (pp. 396-7)

"A century after formal library education began, library science students can be described as college graduates learning the expertise considered necessary to maintain and improve services within an institution housing objects of cultural and intellectual authority." (p. 397)

---- 1989:

The author's hypothesis is that "librarianship has been circumscribed by an ideology of reading that inherently limits its authority in the society in which it operates. Regular adherence to this ideology automatically delegates to others the determination of what is 'good reading'; it also vastly underestimates the mental baggage readers bring to a text that significantly influences the messages they get from it." (p.106)

Library services are satisfactory to some ten percent of American population, but they are very unsatisfactory to the majority of Americans who do not use libraries, because they do not get or expect to get the information services they are looking for.

The author's "hypothesis helps explain why the profession of librarianship lacks the kind of power and authority commanded by other professions . . . [and] why American libraries have generally been considered marginal institutions when compared with other social services provided by the state. Those are two facts of American library history we cannot escape, no matter how rosy we paint our past." (p.107)

WILKINSON, JOHN, 1983:

Librarians are not interested in theory, and consider philosophical generalizations as futile and dangerous, thus failing to delineate professional purposes and responsibilities.

The argument that library survived without philosophy was applicable till 19th century, but is not sufficient in the present times of changing environment.

Bergen, twenty years ago affirmed librarianship to be a separate discipline with its own experiences to gather and analyze data and to develop conceptual schemes.

Librarianship must make the change by becoming a scholarly discipline with a unique focus on relationships between social needs for information and printed knowledge without surrounding its traditional base in literature, ethics or history.

The theoretician should define areas of human experience related to librarianship, legitimating the focus on user-driven system designated to meet cognitive needs.

WILKINSON, MARGARET ANN, 1984:

"'The role of the librarian, unlike that of information scientist, is to identify the 'containers' of information rather than to filter the information itself.' This problem contains three distinct hypotheses. First, the librarian's role is to identify the 'containers' of information. After initial examination of relevant definitions, this hypothesis is found to be true, if not exhaustive. Second, the role of the information scientist is to filter the information itself. Examination of

concepts reveal that this statement is also true, although not exhaustive. Finally, exploration of the definitions of the two roles leads to the conclusion that they are philosophically one and the same. Therefore, since the third hypothesis (that the roles are different) is shown to be false, the problem statement is false." (p.195)

WILLIAMS, GORDON, 1964:

"We must recognize and accept the fact that the information needs of everyone - humanist, scientist, and ordinary citizen - are now substantially different from what they were a hundred years or more ago, but that the techniques and organization used by the library to satisfy these needs are not substantially different from what they were then. More important, they are fundamentally inadequate to satisfy the present needs." (p.378)

"We must accept the proposition that every library is responsible for locating and making available to its patrons any published information they require, a proposition that has not been hitherto acknowledged." (Ibid.)

WILLIAMS, ROBERT V., 1984:

If the purpose of theory is to explain empirical phenomena then there is a completely adequate explanation of the process known as library development. Here theory is defined as "a logical structure of concepts which designates an object to be explained and which provides a mechanism of explanation for that object." (p.1)

Explanation of library development should be measured by the logical interrelatedness and empirical relevance of the concepts that make the explanation.

The need is for a general definition of a library, not limited to socio-cultural conditions, but one that would provide for deriving more limited definitions applicable for specific time and space settings.

There are three major thematic explanations of public library development: (1) social conditions, (2) democratic tradition and (3) social control theory orchestrated by elite to use a library for achieving social control over people.

These attempts are of value in listing some specific variables, the problem however is in the lack of logically interrelated statements explaining why and how the library development takes place at any particular time or space.

Three factors are suggested in explaining the development of special libraries in U.S.A.: (1) transformation of American scholarship, (2) expansion of industry, and (3) development of the library profession. Other indirect factors include: change in American education from text-centered approach to supplementary reading together with an increased focus in universities on research, publications and research ethics.

In general, capitalistic societies established libraries as a social investment, based on Calvinist philosophy of the library as a supplier of intellectual capital, where wealth can be pursued. A non-capitalistic view of the library as a 'temple of knowledge', did not emphasized library development as such.

The overall problem however is in definition and measurement of what is essentially a philosophical concept that activates individuals to emphasize the importance of libraries.

Explanations of library development that emphasizes its state or level, rather than historically oriented analyses, focuses on a particular time using as units of analysis the states, nations, cities or individuals. In this approach the following factors were identified as contributing to library development: the economic ability, geography, education, population size, income, family size, the determination of the potential users of libraries and the ways of information acquisition.

At least three major problems emerge: (1) the constructs were not used in a unified and logical explanatory format; (2) definitions and measurements of the concepts of library development do not represent the entire idea of a library within any type of social system; (3) Library development is of no interest to the library researchers. In our research we are engaged in teleology and not science, by assuming a priori that there are final purposes and causes in library development that is culturally and ideologically determined.

In conclusion, education is the most important construct in library development; it is closely tied to the economic ability, urbanization and the general societal and specific organizational complexity.

WILLIAMS, ROBERT V., and MARTHA JANE K. ZACHERT, 1986:

"The resistance by library education programs to the demands of practitioners for specialization has limited the profession to a very narrow range of work in the 'Information Society' of today and created unnecessary divisions within the information profession at large." (p.215)

In late 1970s a need aroused for "bringing together traditional library education and the new information programs, for reexamining the profession's underlying philosophy, for converging the information professions [and] for developing new types of education to support the whole" (p.230)

WILLIAMSON, C.C., 1931:

In this first article of the first issue of the Library Quarterly, the author addresses librarianship's claim to the status of science. Lack of satisfactory research in the field, inability to control human behavior, and humanistic background of librarians resulted in an empirical, rule-of-thumb, guesswork driven, library procedures combined with the prejudice against scientific scrutiny. At best, librarianship can be considered an embryonic science only.

"The important thing is training in scientific methods of attacking and solving problems, the cultivation of the scientific spirit and attitude. As soon as this is recognized and acted upon, library science will become a reality." (p.11)

WILLS, MICHAEL, 1989:

In the past librarians were scholars since librarianship was one of the professions offering reasonable means of support. "The duties of the job were few. The qualifications required were virtually identical with those required for scholarship: a knowledge of the contents of books, and the ability to converse about them with others, whose use of the library is thus facilitated." (p.653)

With the changing environment, the roles changed: expanded field of knowledge, requires more time for research and for managing its resources; scholars become teachers and librarians the managers of research material. The argument that to serve best the scholar, one should be a scholar himself is similar to the claim that the physician would be a better doctor by being continually ill; this does not mean that the librarian should spend all his time on scholarship, or that the physician be ill all the time. Librarians' duty is to run libraries and serve their patrons. "If they wish to be scholars, and pursue research, well and good, but they are not thereby being librarians. By serving readers intelligently and effectively, they can greatly facilitate scholarship and research, and help more to be achieved than they could ever achieve themselves." (Ibid.).

WILSON, LOUIS ROUND, 1936:

Three librarians "ascribed the rise of the public library in America to three entirely different causes. Borden, with a penchant for philosophic statement and an outlook that is distinctly social, find that the influences [on librarianship] were largely democratic, educational, and social . . . Wellard, a keen observer from England . . . associated the development of the American public library with the growth of philanthropy and the reform movement . . . Orman . . . sees the American public library springing from an economic demand." (pp. 256-6)

In the next few decades librarians will "set forth systematically in clear perspective the philosophy underlying the activities of Dewey and his coworkers so that the future of librarianship may be able to chart its course in the light of that philosophy. They maintain that American librarians must have a philosophy of librarianship, just as an individual must have a philosophy of life, if he is to make the most of himself. Consequently they are going to find out what this philosophy of the library was. This constitutes the first important change in the field of librarianship which I expect to see take place." (p.256)

---- 1938:

"Although the first free, tax-supported American public library was established approximately a century ago, this philosophy, or spirit, upon which the movement has been based still lacks definitive description. Even on the part of librarians there is disagreement as to what it is. The founders of the American Library Association in 1876 . . . did not concern themselves so much with the formulation and statement of their philosophy as they did with the formulation of specific objectives and with the adoption of concrete measures by means of which these might be achieved." (p. 417)

"Belief in education, and the accompanying desire to bring it within the range of the individual and of the general public, found expression in various ways . . . and they have accentuated the demand for the services of the library as contributing to the promotion of general education and to the preparation of the individual for membership in a democratic society." (p.420)

---- 1953:

The motivation and standards set up by writers such as J.H. Robinson, W.S. Learned, P.Butler and Wellard "contributed to the broadening and deepening of the philosophy of librarianship upon which library service and adult education in America are firmly based. They emphasize the importance and dignity of the individual in a democratic society, an importance and dignity that must be maintained at all cost if men are to remain free. Practical applications of this theory or philosophy have eventuated in a class of publications of great significance to librarians." (p.138)

WILSON, PATRICK, 1973:

In reviewing Shera's concept of social epistemology, the author notes that "the not yet developed foundations [that] Shera hopes for, might neither justify the librarian's claim to perform task of mediating between men and record, nor help in its performance. But perhaps this is not too serious. At one point Shera described the library's role as the assembling, preserving, and making available for use the records of human experience [saying that] 'It's as simple as that' . . . Perhaps, if we forget about maximization of utility, it is indeed as simple as that. But in that case, why worry about 'foundations', and why ask for a new epistemology?" (p.249)

---- 1977:

Public knowledge, available to readers to make their decisions is distinguished from the published knowledge stored in the library. Private ignorance refers to people's indiscriminate use of information; they do not care about the value of information obtained from reading as long as it does not affect negatively their decisions. Public is ill-informed, discouraged by a time-consuming and complex access to knowledge.

Since the major use of knowledge is in a variety of decision-making processes, it requires the assistance of subject experts not the bibliographical experts.

Library catalogs are arranged by known topics not by problems and solutions, retrieved documents may be too difficult to understand and do not assure the correctness of information contained in them. Librarians in general search for information without questioning its value.

Library information dissemination system should be based on subject specialist providing reference assistance and advice.

---- 1983:

The author describes "the bibliographical sector for the assemblage of institutions and organizations that collectively take the output of the publishing industry and try to make it accessible for public use. This sector includes the wholesale and retail book trade, libraries, and various agencies - scholarly, professional and commercial - that produce such bibliographical instruments as abstracting and indexing services, general periodical indexes, list of newly published books and books in print. The job of making the output of the publishing industry accessible has two logically distinct parts: first, making it possible to discover the existence of a publication, and second, making it possible to get . . . a copy of the publication. The first is the problem of intellectual access, the second that of physical access." (p.389)

Bibliographical Research and Development (R&D) work and interest are divided into six categories: (1) improvement of storage, manipulation, transmission and display of bibliographical information, (2) improvement of techniques for creating bibliographical information, (3) descriptive study of literature, the bibliometrics and citation analysis, (4) historical studies of books, libraries, publishing and bibliography, (5) description of the status of bibliographical sector and its social and economic aspects, and (6) studies of the organization and management of the bibliographical sector.

The bibliographical R&D community is a very heterogeneous group, including librarians, information scientists, engineers, and various technicians; the scope of the studies overlaps many disciplines.

---- 1986:

The book discusses reference rules based on either the wants or needs of the inquirer. "Both of these rules are claimed to be equivalent to a rule calling for inquiry into a purpose. The 'purpose rule' is contrasted with a 'face value rule' calling for clarification of initial requests but no explicit inquiry into a purpose. The latter is defended as a legitimate expression of one conception of the reference librarian's professional role, implying a restricted view of the librarian's responsibility for the outcomes of reference inquiries." (p.468)

"Neither rule will suit what one might call, the view that it is the librarian's professional responsibility to pursue inquiries into wants and needs beyond the mere surface interest in information and to plumb unexpressed and even inexpressible wants or needs for anything whatever - reassurance, consolation, relief from worry - insofar as these might be met partially or fully by library materials." (p.474)

All these are procedural questions, which will not be answered until the larger question about the essence of librarianship is resolved.

WILSON, PAULINE 1977:

"The library as a bibliographic system exists to provide access to the graphic records, which is to say recorded information, whether in print or in another recorded form such as film. However, new information services might consist largely of providing access to unrecorded information. This would represent change in the library's function." (p.36)

"Other agencies also store and preserve culture, but in the library that function is carried out primarily by means of a collection. The collection is the base or foundation of every library." (p.37)

---- 1978:

"Two areas of prime importance emerge from a reading of Bell's model. The first is the political environment characteristic of the post-industrial society. It is competitive." (p.128) "For the library this means that careful planning, coordination, and continual attention to legislative programs . . . is required." (Ibid.)

"The second area of importance is the knowledge base of librarianship. If it is to meet the information needs of the post-industrial society, it must be enlarged and enriched . . . [in] theory, technology and management." (Ibid.)

"Information science is not adequately integrated into library education. The library field is seen as inhibiting [its] development." (Ibid.)

---- 1979:

The notion that librarians are teachers is criticized for creating identity problems among librarians. Teachers' primary role is to disseminate knowledge through teaching by interpreting in part the content of graphic records. The librarians' focus is on the understanding of the graphic records structure as entity; they disseminate the content of the records not by teaching but by processing and servicing records of knowledge.

---- 1988:

The author discusses the relationship between library, information science and other disciplines in the context of assumptions made in the past. (1) The library is in information business, but what part of it? (2) Information is like an electrical impulse, but without semantic content. (3) The 'oil-flow' model of information with 'oil-tanks' model of knowledge represent information as a an undifferentiated flow through computer and telecommunication networks; here knowledge is measured in terms of stored fluid information. (4) Machlup made a distinction between the verb 'to inform', the noun 'information - as told' and metaphoric description, analogical to human activities or concoction, assigning the meaning to information for specific purposes. (5) Information is divorced from meaning in engineering sense. (6) It is used in decision leading to action; it must reduce uncertainty, be useful, valuable and correct.

For librarian information is concerned with content, semantic meaning, and its use by people. Information as electrical impulse refers to equipment needed to process it. "The bottom line in libraries is information conceived as having semantic meaning, for without that concept library service would not exist." (p.84)

Do patrons use the library to gain information or acquire knowledge? Information is acquired by being told, a process, a flow of messages as bits and pieces of discrete information. Knowledge is acquired by thinking, a coherent and structured state with enduring value; any experience can lead to change in person's knowledge.

Information science may be: (1) an amorphous, assemblage from different disciplines, (2) a new independent discipline (not yet in existence), (3) combined with computer and/or library science, by managing recorded information in whatever medium it is found.

Library science relates to librarianship, and librarianship is a service. Information science is perceived not as a service or practice but as an area of inquiry.

It is a fallacy to consider the book as merely a container for information, since in addition to reference, it also includes nonfiction, fiction, scholarly, popular, children, or adults content which are more than just containers for information. A book can treat a topic at great length into a coherent whole. It present the author's thoughts in an orderly fashion that make understanding possible.

WILSON, T.D., 1981:

Problems in definitional distinction between data, information, and knowledge are not created by a lack of definitions but by failure to use them at appropriate level and purpose of investigation.

Information in user-studies denotes (a) a physical entity, the channel of communication through which messages are transferred, or (b) factual data, empirically determined and presented in the document or transmitted orally.

Distinction should also be made between facts free of value judgment, advice, and opinion and in the definition of information needs, between wants, or expressed or satisfied demand. All these meanings stress the importance of identifying the context of information studied.

Other confusion is between what is intended by research in information and what is expected from such research. Human needs are of at least 3 interrelated kinds: (1) physiological, (2) affective (psychological, emotional), and (3) cognitive (need to plan, to learn etc.).

The author proposes to substitute the term 'information needs' by 'information-seeking toward the satisfaction of needs.'

Other factors to be included are: the availability of information, its cost, various personal need for achievement, self-expression, self-actualization, interpersonal and environmental barriers to information-seeking, economic climate, political system and physical environment.

Hence, "when we talk of a user' or 'information needs' we should not have in mind some conception of a fundamental, innate, cognitive or emotional 'need' for information, but a conception of information (facts, data, opinion, advice) as one means towards the end of satisfying such fundamental needs." (p.10)

The holistic approach to information studies perceives an individual not only as seeking information for cognitive ends, but as a living and working person in social setting, with its own motivations. This results in a shift of attention of research from information sources and systems used by the information-seeker to an exploration of the role of information in the user's social setting. This affect: (1) methods used in research, leading to a qualitative research concerned with the developing concepts rather than applying preexisting concepts; (2) the context of the research is narrowed before developing generally applicable theory, and (3) conceptual perspective is widened by including relevant studies in psychology, social psychology, or sociology, using models from social rather than natural sciences.

The result will be (1) a reduction of the marginality of information services in the organization (the service will become more essential); (2) increased analysis of the total range of information services in an organization; (3) widening of the concept of 'information profession' by (a) including computer scientists, system analysts, information managers, designers and database entrepreneurs, and (b) by developing better cooperation among those groups; and (4) expanding curricula to be more concerned with the social and organizational contexts of information-seeking and information use, with more emphasis on theories in communication, social research methods and their philosophical bases.

---- 1984:

"The cognitive approach to 'information behaviour' centres upon the idea of meaning. Meaning is involved not only in all aspects of information generation, transfer and use, but also in the way people define themselves, their lives and their action.

The cognitive approach . . . draws attention to the need for a bridge between the meaning of everyday life and the information that may have relevance for everyday life . . . everyday life is different for every person.

"Individuals may be constrained . . . in their ability to define the content, direction and function of their work and . . . the diversity of roles may prevent the emergence of coherent groups capable of expressing clear needs for information support." (p.197) Those factors may seriously affect the study of the behavior in the use of information.

WINGER, HOWARD W., 1961:

"The specialization in librarianship should not hide the common role of the librarian. When we speak of the academic librarian and the public librarian, the common and critical word, after all, is just the librarian. In its historical context, the role of the librarian has developed on the approach to knowledge. The librarian's task has been to collect and organize the important records of the time in order to bring them to bear in all possible ways on the intellectual problems of time. Conditioning factors in his task have been the range and complexity of records that were valued by a scholarship and a culture and the size and the definition of the audience. The variations in these factors and the personal emphasis librarians have placed on them account for historical changes in librarianship and for the proliferating specialization of today." (p.333)

WINTER, MICHAEL F., 1988:

This is a study in sociology of librarianship as a profession, focusing on historical context and types of professional controls. The author calls for a 'metascience', whose subject would be the organization of knowledge itself.

General social functions of librarianship are: (a) maintenance of culture by making available access to knowledge records, (b) provision of cultural continuity by preserving cultural and historical records, and (c) expansion of the collective social memory.

'Knowledge base' is defined as an intellectual capital of a profession, a specialized professional knowledge. Metascience is seen as a need for organization of records. Library knowledge base is applied metascience: how the universe of published records of knowledge is organized.

Metascience developed as a result of a rapid growth of knowledge and increased intellectual confusion. New disciplines focus on form rather than content in providing structure. Three approaches to metascience are: (1) Structuralism (Claude Lewis Strauss). (2) Semiotics (Unberto Eco), and (3) Systems theory (Laszlo).

The core of librarianship is three-part interplay between: (a) organizational structure of knowledge, (b) study of users and patterns of information use, and (c) theory of intellectual freedom.

Library organization of knowledge consists of organization of its records outputs by: (a) classification: cognitive, similar to Linnean classification, periodic tables and F. Beconian outline of knowledge, (b) storing and retrieval: an indexing system; and (c) specialized by subject. The library mediates between them.

"Mediation among records and users requires, in addition to communication, the ability to abstract the formal properties of documents from their contents." (p.86) "The interpretation of the content of the record is secondary to the organization of bodies of records by formal characteristics." (Ibid.)

WOODSWORTH, ANNE, et al., 1989:

The theme of this study is the increased diversity among research libraries with few large collections and many others focusing on electronic access.

Mission of research library is to provide free flow of information-based services, integrated into the research, teaching and administrative functions of the university, with library assuming the central role in formulating university policies.

Proposed conceptual model consists of interconnected tripartite system of (1) information handling, (2) designing access systems and (3) evaluation of user needs, delivering services and programs.

Each component is characterized by its own (1) focus (handling, designing, service), (2) functions (acquisition, organization, preservation, design and evaluation of programs), (3) resources (collection, files, people), (4) staffing (centralized and dispersed), (5) skills (preservation techniques, use of artificial intelligence, subject orientation), and (6) results (objects are organized, access is user-sensitive, and user needs are met).

Staff involved in information handling and design is centralized, those in delivering and evaluating programs and services are dispersed in 'service clusters', close to their user group. User services are proactive with fast delivery, and databases are created, delivered, and evaluated.

Collections are measured not by size but the ability to provide access in all formats, whole-text, and in-depth access to not-in- machine formats.

"Boundary conditions and transitional steps will alter research libraries radically by the year 2020. Functions, organization, administration, staffing, results, and the library's centrality on campus will be altered, with service clusters formed and disbanded to meet the needs of client groups. Flexibility, collaboration, diversity, and fluidity will characterize research library operation and service." (p.132)

WOODWARD, DIANA, 1987:

This is a summary of panel discussion about fundamental philosophical issues on the nature of information science.

A. Metaphysical issues in classification theory. (David V. Ward): "Those issues are of two sorts: (1) metaphysical questions about the nature of the objects classified, and; (2) epistemological questions about the definitions of the concepts which denote the classified objects." (p.255)

Major metaphysical questions include the definitions by nominalists and pragmatists of the status of universals such as the status of the objects as real or fiction.

Epistemological questions address the descriptive, assertive or imperative prescriptive nature of definitions in the theories of classification.

B. Social epistemology and the Foundations of Information Science (Thomas J. Froehlich).

Cartesian interpretation of relevance based on the subjective states of the information users, is criticized "since it radically misconstrues the social embeddedness of relevance judgments and the appropriation of culture by the 'phenomenal body', a phenomenological constructs that avoid dualism and which supplies the foundation for a social epistemology that discloses the transpersonal and intersubjective dimension of relevance and cognitive authority judgments. In order to grasp effectively the information transfer process in society, we must analyze such concepts as epistemic and axiological communities, two foci of a social epistemology and a hermeneutic approach to information transfer structure." (T.J. Froehlich, Ibid.)

---- 1988:

Underlying philosophy of the school's curriculum is that: (a) student interested in any aspects of information will benefit from exposure to the foundation courses; (b) students need an understanding of both information users and technology that include theories of individual and organizational behavior, information theory and methods for satisfying user needs, and (c) students must have both theoretical understanding of the field and applied experience with methods of implementation (online searching, database design, systems analysis and information ethics).

WOOSTER, HAROLD A., 1955:

The author warns against the use of the concept 'perfection' since it implies a status quo. The perfection is beyond any criticism and above any controversy, lacking humility and provides no opportunity for improvement (any change can be only

worse).

The library as "the institution in theory and practice is not perfect, its basic ideal of lifetime educational opportunities freely available is a most noble concept . . . yet it seldom, if ever, approaches perfection." (p.159)

WORSLEY PETER, 1967:

The author notes a change from 19th century laissez-faire approach for self-advancement to contemporary emergence of large organizations providing education to all.

Public library shares its participation with other media. It's mission is multipurposeful: it helps in finding books, provides civic publicity, information and recreation, reflecting people's total social and cultural environment.

However libraries have hurdles to overcome: patrons are at times considered a nuisance, they lack understanding of cultural barriers and the use of abstract language.

"Some people believe that the library tends to attract its reader toward higher quality literature, and to widen his interest. Others hold that he finds what he wants to find, and that using the library only helps him confirm his existing prejudices." (p.267)

The answer is to become a center for cultural activities, disregarding 'high' and 'low' cultural distinction. It is the treatment of a theme, and handling of the form, not the form itself that matter.

WRIGHT, HERBERT CURTIS, 1975:

There is a need "to create a critical Studienswissenchaft, a kind of 'studyology' . . . a discipline that has for its object the study of anything, a science of the study of subject X.

Librarians should invent logology, a general science of disciplinary knowing, that could become, for example, an 'anthropologology', an ology capable of explaining exactly what antropology is . . . by focusing squarely on its uses of information. If we knew with precision why anthropologists require the stuff they read and write and how they think about it, we could construct a meaningful librarianship for them that would be responsive to their actual information needs." (p.29)

---- 1976a:

The original sin of Dewey was his trying "to create a professional education based on the physics of library operations." (p.27)

"There is a great deal of difference between the physics of library operations and the metaphysics of librarianship. Metaphysics is the philosophical attempt to understand the ultimate realities . . . whereas physics is the scientific investigation of its proximate realities." (p.28)

"The basic metaphysical question for librarians [is] 'What really is librarianship?' or better, 'What is the actual substance of librarianship ultimately made of?" (p.29) "If we belief that the ultimate substance of librarianship is ideas, we are idealists . . . if we belief that librarianship is ultimately made of matter, we become materialists." (Ibid.)

"According to Kaplan, the metasciences, including librarianship, are derived not from man and nature in any objective sense, but from human ideas, the human language . . . and the human information processes." (p.32)

---- 1976b:

"The entire information science movement is misconceived, since information is noetic form; and form precisely qua form cannot be the proper object of a science, which must have a physical referent (phenomenal base) in the material universe.

Physical substance is the direct object of study in the sciences; but in the arts it is the means of studying form. Information in the humanities, for example, tends to be its own end. Art has great meaning for human beings; but it does not refer to anything outside itself; it is what it means, and its meaning cannot be looked up in the dictionary or anywhere else.

The humanistic recognition of nonphysical structure and form can hardly be equated with the scientific description of physical substance and content. The expressive vehicle of information, on the other hand, can be studied scientifically; and that seems to be what the information scientists are actually studying." (p. 310)

---- 1976c:

There are no general theories of learning or of teaching, since psychologists have failed to demonstrate any connections between abstract knowledge and its practical applications; knowing how to teach does not depend on knowing learning processes.

There are two standards of truth: the conceptual (abstract standards) and the experimental (true in terms of human experience but not necessarily experimental).

Scientific models imply that everything is based on natural order, or is clarified mathematically. Human expression that is always specific and concrete escapes intellectual abstractions.

Psychology studies human body, not human psyche; e.g., forms of thought are subject to epistemological studies, while the actual thinking is studies as human behavior. This leads to a distinction between the ultimate forms of human expression and human expressive behavior.

Teaching is an art, and there is no science of art. (e.g., It involves emotions that cannot be systematically appraised). Art deals with know-how, science deals with basic theoretical knowledge, devising novel ways of thinking about familiar phenomena.

---- 1977a:

Wright "argues that information per se can function as the humanistic referent for a deeply philosophical study, but cannot possibly constitute the object of science . . . A philosophy of librarianship may possibly exist somewhere, but if it does, we have been unable to locate even the slightest trace of it . . . there is not one single philosopher-librarian anywhere in America today." (pp.xix-xv)

Information cannot be the proper object of a science for two reasons: (1) information is a nonphysical phenomenon made up of entirely spiritual structure and form, not of material substance and content; and (2) form, precisely qua form, cannot function as the direct object of a science, which must have a physical referent (phenomenal base) in the material universe" (Ibid.)

Wright refers to Kaplan's inclusion of librarianship in the metascience, arguing that "the only alternative to a structural base for any of the metasciences would be according to Kaplan ' a narrow specialism or a really quite impossible encyclopedism' [meaning] not that librarians are humanistic by choice, but that the direct object of their interest is the noetic form of the human mind itself." (p.9)

"The nature of man and information are probably