"We have to have a philosophy of what libraries mean to the community and we have to centralize that philosophy on the function of providing information service to that community." (p.243)

The public library should be (a) an information center for the community, (b) a place for civic gathering, and (c) be more proficient in public relations.

"One critical need in our society today is information to help people interact with marketplace situations . . . These materials can attract a clientele that views the library as not just a repository of the past but as a living expression of the present and of the civic needs of the community." (p.249)

NAJARIAN, SUZANNE E., 1980:

The psychological studies on memory and learning reveal some principles about human categorizing processes of knowledge. They may be useful in designing library system to provide access to its resources by: (a) familiarizing patrons with the organizational schema used, (b) facilitating the use of search strategy that is similar to the retrieval of items from memory, and (c) considering the amount of information that an individual can handle at any time.

The study provides illustrations of applying particular principles. (a) Some categorizing processes are based on the principle of grouping the concepts by involving superordinate categories for more specific concepts. (b) "Learning of new ideas is facilitated by the availability in cognitive structure of more general concepts that serve to organize or anchor and thus give meaning to the new material." (p. 32) (c) Recall of information can be facilitated by sorting unrelated words into categories; and (d) "Individual will organize material into categories that are progressively differentiated in terms of degree of generality when faced with the task of remembering that material." (p.33)

NARAYANA, S.J., 1984:

"The basis of knowledge is information. Information which is the result of a meaningful response to a stimulus, when correlated, synthesized and stratified during the course of time becomes knowledge. Knowledge applied and tested over a long period of time by a continuous stream of minds resulting in its acceptance as truth, becomes wisdom." (p. 27)

Information must be used to be of value. It is used to support or disprove a theory, describe, predict, modify and translate the existing ideas into a physical format, create, recreate ideas and provide a psychological satisfaction.

Problems in information handling include managing physical records, language barriers, proliferation of publications, uneven quality, currency and privacy of information.

NATIONAL COMMISSION ON LIBRARIES AND INFORMATION SCIENCE: 1974:

"A new philosophy of library and information science is needed, one based on a common sense of direction and purpose, a commitment to national cooperative action, and a consistent program of equalization." (p.14)

Recorded information and knowledge should be treated as a national resource, available to all people. The change should be based on a new philosophy of service, supported by Federal, State and local governments and involving the following basic assumptions. (a) The total national knowledge resource should be developed, strengthened, organized and serve the public interest. (b) It should provide equal access to everybody for personal enrichment and achievement. (c) It should constitute an integral part of the nation-wide network. (d) The philosophy should incorporate rights of authors, publishers and the readers, and (e) provide for protection of privacy and intellectual freedom with maximum political autonomy.

NATOLI, JOSEPH P., 1982:

Librarianship should be considered a human study. "The goal of research in human study is to recreate the human conditions of the object of study in the mind of the reader by utilizing the reader's natural propensity to both experience and understanding. It is not the explanation that is understood - a statement shared via reason - but an experience dwelled upon and brought within one's own body of tacit knowledge." (p.163)

The focus is on tacit not propositional knowledge and on subjective approach expressing consciousness based on a phenomenological viewpoint. Natural sciences' analyzes of the physical world, must be internalized within each individual's own understanding of reality.

"The benefit of a qualitatively oriented descriptive study lie in its capacity to reach people on a human level, to enrich the foundation of all understanding - our tacit understanding." (p.173)

NEENAN, PETER A., 1985:

Adult services are defined as: "the purposive, integrated, controlled exploitation of resources available to the practitioner on behalf of clients and constituents for the purpose of attaining specific, desired, predicted change." (p.181)

This definition is compatible with the philosophy of librarianship that libraries and their services exist to contribute to the individual and social betterment. As a principle it assists especially the librarians involved in adult services.

NEFF, RAYMOND K., 1985:

The library is defined as the repository, lender, acquirer and borrower of organized information - emphases are on prepackaged information for ready access and delivery to users.

The university computer center supplies combination of machines, procedures, and people to input, manipulate, store, retrieve and display information. The computer does arithmetic by manipulating symbol rather than a machine that does both arithmetical and symbols-manipulation operations, a significant philosophical distinction.

Neff lists a number of similarities between the library and computer center. (a) Library stores packaged information and lends it, computer center stores retrieves and displays information. (b) Library acquires and borrows information material, computer center inputs information; both store, retrieve, input and output information. (c) Libraries use a computer to manipulate information, the computer's manipulation of information in symbolic form is relevant to library operations. The use of common storage of media based on bits and bytes bring the two units together. (d) Libraries provide access to computerized data bases in textual, numerical and graphical formats free of charge; the economies of mass production will lower the cost of computers and will result in no-charge computer services. (e) Information access will be used more, thus accelerating electronic library and will offer 'distributive computing'; both books and computer data will be shared easily among institutions. (f) Sharing of information will increase with development of inter campus networking, and cost-effective storage technology. (g) Libraries and computer centers will use the same devices for archival storage. (h) All information will be storable in a standardized form and retrieved in an infinite variety of forms. (i) Electronically packaged information will be used for reference and browsing, paper information packages will be used for personal reading and study. (j) The computer center provides hardware to individuals and maintains it. The library makes software available together with other formats of information.

"The computerized library of the future will deliver traditional information and package it in unique ways for unique purposes poses." (p.12)

NEILL, SAM, 1971:

McLuhan is criticized as an enemy of books for considering them obsolete. Neill maintains that on the contrary, the format of McLuhan own book mirrors his message, stressing not the content but the form of a book, balancing objectivity and perceptivity of the message.

McLuhan identified different qualities of the media, refusing to take a moral stand on the goodness or badness of the changes. A printed book will move from shelves to information center, acquiring greater circulation and usefulness than ever before.

According to McLuhan, anything that works become obsolete, but it does not signal the disappearance of the book. On the contrary. obsolescence "means that a service has become so pervasive that it permeates every area of a culture like the vernacular itself . . . [it] ensures total acceptance and ever wider use." (p.316)

---- 1973:

"The failure of information scientists to provide solutions to the information problems of ordinary people is a result of their failure to provide results beyond 'low effectiveness' for the specialized users of existing retrieval systems . . . (they) ignore human element." (p.48)

The human factor represents a variation in decision making that affects information retrieval by determining kinds of information needs. Librarians avoided influencing patrons' decision in a name of individuals' freedom and protection of their privacy.

Neill points out that "we are not in the 'data' market. We are in the idea business . . . The librarian can't guarantee satisfaction from reading . . . satisfaction is not in the product, but in the complex results of using the product . . . We are not in the precision business [but] in the thinking business." (pp. 52-53)

---- 1975:

Practice in library school offers aids in instruction. It is similar to laboratory work in natural sciences, not like a drill in clerical routines or training of technical skills.

The role of library school is primarily to produce decision-makers, not competent technicians. Understanding, a result of thought processes, does not need to be practiced.

Learning is based on trial and error approach; errors are discouraged in the library practice although they are often the first steps in the learning process of understanding.

---- 1980:

Neill considers an information package as a mental analog of processes and objects in the real, physical world, used by researchers in their analysis of things and events.

Popper rejects the relationship between mental and a physical event, offering, as an illustration, an analyzation of the hole in a donut; the 'holeness' is what is left after one has eaten the donut. Others consider the donut as essential to understand the hole, for them the mental analog of the hole relates to the physical entity of a donut.

Neill accepts the concept of mental analog, but questions the possibility of constructing an adequate model for the universe of knowledge. In constructing an on-line search strategy for the patron, the librarian is providing a custom-made structure of pertinent knowledge in which the models of knowledge are irrelevant. "Knowledge cannot be structured usefully and, indeed, ought not be structured." (p.376)

---- 1982a:

Information is the content of a message communicated from an author to his readers. Historically, library function was to provide reading material, not information. Now some argue that library is in the business of providing free information. However, the present focus is on knowledgeable citizens, who are expected to be entertained and informed by the library but not 'knowledged'. Knowledge is acquired by each person individually. The function of the public library is to offer education (knowledge) through reading, helping the patrons to become someone rather than to have something, through reading which provides knowledge about the meaning of life, not mere question - answering information.

---- 1982b:

Socio-demographic nature of library users is stable and no change in the number and type of usages is anticipated, unless non-users change their habits.

Speed of service, important only to some specialists, is a selling point of computerization and it is limited by time needed for referencing the material and reading it.

"System professionals never touch a book or talk to a patron. They have established a hermeneutic relationship with the system machinery . . . The profession will no longer recruit those who want to work with ideas rather than things. It will be a profession of systems managers." (p.307)

---- 1982c:

Brooks attempted to establish a logarithmic law of information based on a philosophical position provided by Karl Popper's concept of three worlds.

Popper's philosophy is relevant to librarianship. His World 3 includes logical contents of books, libraries, and computer memories. It is a world of storage of the objective contents of thoughts, and values considered abstractly; it is a domain of library and information science.

Popper uses the terms 'knowledge' and 'information' interchangeably; he rejects the concept of 'information as hard facts' since human perception is based on prejudicial perceptions. Brookes agrees with Popper; to him knowledge is an interrelated structure of concepts with information considered as a small part of that structure. Librarians use 'knowledge' objectively as it is defined in World 3 and it is similarly to Shera's concept of social epistemology.

"The theoretical development of library and information science lies in the problematics of (1) indexing and classifying the objective knowledge of world 3 and (2) understanding the world 2 processes of human questioning and problem solving." (p.38)

---- 1985a:

The library should be concerned with knowledge rather than information. Information consists of facts only, knowledge is a systematic body of interrelating concepts. Understanding is a three-dimensional cognitive and affective perception of knowledge.

"The library's role is not to teach technical skills or to provide technical information or to provide information per se at all. An emphasis on information . . . endangers the development of a broad view of life." (p.60)

Libraries' goals were and still are book-oriented, promoting the kind of understanding that is possible only from reading books.

---- 1985b:

The ontological conception of Popper's three world consists of the physical world (W1), world of our conscious experiences (W2) and the logical content of human arguments, theories, ideas and productions (W3).

Correspondingly in the library's reference situation: W1 provides hints about the characteristics such as age, appearance, physical location of material, the design of the collection, or keys to it; all helping an interaction between the reference librarian and the patron.

W2 tells about the influence of the inquirer on the librarian, cognitive abilities, communication, perception about libraries' role, the expectations, or intended use of the information or education.

W3 refers to language used in the communication, the meaning of the actual knowledge of the subject-matter and library's collection, or interviewing skill of the librarian.

Popper's ontology should be used in the theory of librarianship for three reasons: (1) it helps understand the elements involved in information work, (2) all factors are researchable and (3) three-world ontology may offer a valid philosophical foundation for librarianship, although some philosophers questioned the validity of W3.

Popper's model is about problem-solving, it offers opportunity to develop a theory "of the reference process and at the same time a philosophy of reference work." (p.318)

---- 1987a:

The author addresses confusion in the use of terms 'information science.' To be an information scientist one must study and do research in either: (1) information; (2) information production; (3) information control; (4) information storage; (5) information retrieval; or (6) information use. Distinction should be made between 'science' as 'the study of' and as 'knowledge of' phenomena.

---- 1987b:

Brenda Dervin's and Karl Popper's interpretations of subjectivity and objectivity in information take different approaches, yet both agree on the subjective nature of information.

Dervin model of information is similar to that of Pepper's Worlds 1, 2 and 3. It consists of: Information 1 (information describing reality), Information 2 (individuals' mental image of reality) and Information 3 (subjective perception of reality based on the behavior that selects information)

The differences between the two models "lies in the nature of the problem - the one aiming for scientific, impartial objectivity, the other being personal and emotion-laden." (p.203)

---- 1988:

In spite of the anti-censorship policy, libraries reject materials, if their content conflict with moral standards of the community. The public expects the librarian to be a 'censor.'

An argument against an unqualified policy of intellectual freedom is fourfold: (1) historical purpose of a public library is to select material to enrich and improve community life; (2) librarians must make selections; (3) societies have values that cannot be ignored, requiring librarians to make a value judgment; and (4) different types of libraries have different responsibilities.

The philosophy behind the above argument is that "racists, sexists and other exploitative views in print . . . [are] essentially dehumanizing - the consequence being a reduction of possible freedom." (p.36)

Common values are essential in the community life; value judgments reflect community mores and are right for that community. The problems are created by extreme views, which call for censorship to protect the community consensus.

Librarians are responsible for both, the preservation of material relevant to research and for the selection (i.e., censorship) of material of interest to the community they serve. The conflict arises when the community standards contain prejudices. The decision when to take a stand on an individual item must be left to the individual librarian in the local community. He in turn must be more discriminating, and he must be prepared to take the consequences of deciding against community prejudicial standards.

NELL, V. 1988:

In reading process a person extracts meaning from a recorded message. The process is culturally determined and requires full attention, while meaning in other media, such as TV is provided as 'ready-made'.

The author discusses three major schools of literary criticism distinguished by focusing on different component of reading processes. (1) The Geneva School focus on writer's work in which reader recreates authors' creative experiences; (2) School of Practical Criticism stresses the text, without reference to authors' purpose. (3) The New Reader School holds that the reader's expectations create the quality of literariness in the text. The reader is not responding to the meaning of the text, but that the response is the meaning (i.e., the book is created by the reader, and the reader makes the literature).

Both public librarians and newspaper editors consider themselves informers and educators, although they are in fact entertainers. Librarians deal almost exclusively with books and reading. They determine the buying policy, thus determining what library user can read.

Social responsibility of the librarian was interpreted by many as serving the pubic, not to give it what it wanted. Some librarians used popular reading as a bait, hoping that readers will change to serious reading. This creates a problem of making distinction between socially valued and not valued books.

Social value judgments made by librarians in selecting books bear directly on the reader's choice of reading material. The selection procedure should be based on a resolution of a conflict between personal preference and social conscience. Taste is not universal, the mass audience is divided into separate taste cultures, each responding to its own cultural values. Librarians qua librarians are trained to transmit social judgments, but not to make it.

NEUFELD, M. LYNNE, 1982:

The term 'environmental information services' refers to secondary services such as abstracting and indexing. Their development is related to the three modes of scientific and technical information transfer: disciplinary-oriented, mission-oriented and problem-oriented.

Disciplinary-oriented information transfer started at the end of 19th century focusing on the fulfillment of discipline-based information needs. In this mode of transfer the users and producers of information are the same, creating a selective technical group of highly competent experts. The focus here is on the access to the total universe of knowledge, including availability of research done, provided by print media. The goal is the education of future academic users. Service is free to its users.

Mission-oriented information transfer began around 1919; it aimed at satisfying specific goals, frequently defined by the projects established to meet these goals. The approach focused on the state-of-the-art information. The users of this kind of information transfer are engineers and technologists, including some nontechnically trained users. The needs of this group are more interdisciplinary, requiring rapid retrieval of printed issue oriented reports, prompting reorganization of present information services, with special concentration on secondary services. The information has an immediate economic value requiring market-oriented information transfer mechanisms.

Problem-oriented information transfer started in late 1960s. In this mode attention was shifted from technological to social issues such as energy, environment and public health. This group includes a large number of nontechnical professionals. The need for information is widespread and interdisciplinary, requiring rapid retrieval, repackaging of recent information and application of the new technology.

NEUSTADT, RICHARD M., 1981:

The first revolution in information technology was the invention of writing, the second was the introduction of movable type, and the third began 100 years ago with the introduction of electronics.

The last revolution affected information by diversifying media, increasing access to variety of information that is community focused and retrieved quickly. Among the problems created by this revolution are the issues of personal privacy, increased costs and reduced availability of free or government subsidized services; and since much of the important information will not be printed, access to it will be limited to the owners of computers.

The challenge to librarians is to establish networks open to everyone in the community "to develop outreach programs to serve our most pressing public needs: information to help people conserve energy, spend money wisely, and find jobs." (p.1376)

NEWELL, ALLEN, 1983:

Intellectual issues are created by complexity of scientific believes. They polarize intellectual communities, often as dichotomies, and reflect the ways people formulate important controversies.

Newell groups intellectual issues into a number of distinct categories, and identifies their impact on the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI).

(1) The Mechanism versus Teleology (1640-1945): issue of purpose in mechanisms links means with ends. The Mechanism precedes a purpose (e.g., Cartesian split between mind and body); in 1940s cybernetics focused on issues related to machine feedback; in 1950s it concentrated on the study of intelligence in solving problems. (AI settled with cybernetics.)

(2) Natural Biology versus Vitalism (1800-1920): uniqueness of living organisms is reflected in the nature of human mind. The issue of relationships between living organisms with special status and inanimate physical objects was resolved by considering organic matter just as a kind of matter different from inorganic. (AI viewed establishment of body as machine.)

(3) Reason versus Emotion and Feelings (1870- ): cold logic of machines was separated from human reasoning; a machine does not have independently felt emotions. Since 1970 an argument was made that the performance functions, but not the sentient (feelings) functions, can be mechanized. (In AI machines was separated from men, and since 1970 AI was disassociated from philosophy of mind.)

(4) Philosophy versus The Science of Mind (1870-1910): philosophy was separated from empirical science. (in AI psychology was disassociated from philosophy.)

(5) Logic versus Psychology (1910-1945): Symbolic logic as an expression of the process of thinking was changed into a device for mathematics. In AI and technology, the role of logic become means for manipulating things by describing sequential and combinational logical circuits. (In AI logic is separated from psychology.)

(6) Analog versus Digital (1940-1970: distinction was made between continuous physical variables (analog) and discrete states (digital). An analog computer represented quantities by continuous physical variables (fast but of limited accuracy). Digital computers represented quantities by discrete states (slow but accurate). In contemporary hybrid computers digital control and memory is coupled with analog speed and convenience. (AI become a part of computer science.)

(7) Symbols versus Numbers (1955-1965): Digital computers were considered as machines that manipulate numbers; AI considered computers as manipulating symbols. (e.g., in translations). (AI isolated itself within computer science.)

(8) Symbolic versus Continuous Systems (1955 - ): continuous systems in pattern recognition (cybernetics and engineering) were contrasted with symbolic programming systems (artificial community and computer science departments). (AI separated itself from cybernetics.)

(9) Problem-solving versus Recognition (1955-1965): pattern-recognition approach introduced the problems of intelligence (learning), the problem-solving stressed symbolic systems in a machine's game-playing, theorem-proving and puzzle-solving. Since 1965 recognition becomes the description rather than just an identification of an object. (AI separated itself from pattern recognition, in 1965-1975 recognition rejoins AI via robotics; and since 1980 robotics joined AI.)

(10) Psychology versus Neurophysiology (1955-1965): The distinction was made between the psychological focus on symbolic system and problem solving (e.g., stimulus/response) and neurophysiological interest in continuous systems and pattern recognition. (AI was split from cybernetics, establishing a new link to neuroscience since 1975.)

(11) Performance versus Learning (1955-1965): AI created performance systems requiring intelligence; cybernetics and pattern-recognition research concentrated on creating systems that are learned. (in AI resurgence of production system.)

(12) Serial versus Parallel (1955-1965): symbolic-performance system was contrasted with pattern-recognition and self-organizing systems. (AI coordinated these issues with new interest in neural systems.)

(13) Heuristic versus Algorithms (1955-1965): approximate approach based on partial knowledge in search for solution was compared with precise algorithmic methodology. (AI considered separate from computer science.)

(14) Interpretation versus Compilation (1955-1985): efficiency of list-processing language and flexibility of use of compilers becomes an issue. (AI separated from computer science.)

(15) Simulation versus Engineering Analysis (1955- ): simulating human intelligence contrasted with engineering analysis. (AI is divided.)

(16) Replacing versus Helping Human (1960- ): the focus is on ethical issue of replacing or augmenting human aspects. (AI is isolated.)

(17) Epistemology versus Heuristics (1960- ): distinction is made between the nature of knowledge (epistemological) and the process of implementing it (heuristic). (AI is divided and connected with philosophy.)

(18) Search versus knowledge (1965-1980): the heuristic search for the knowledge needed as parts of intelligence contrasted with highly specialized knowledge (expertise). (Apparent paradigm shifts within AI.)

(19) Power versus Generality (1965-1975): shift in the goals of research from machine-power to understanding of commonsense reasoning. (Shift of interest in AI.)

(20) Competence versus Performance (1965- ): linguistic competence (grammar) vs. actual performance (affected by cognitive limitation or stress of the communicator). (Linguistics is separated from AI and psychology.)

(21) Memory versus Processing (1965-1975): symbolic level of AI vs. psychological architecture based on memory. (Cognitive psychology was separated from AI.)

(22) Syntax versus Semantics (1965-1975): the initial separation of syntax and semantics in the actual processing of language was abolished. (Linguistics is split from AI.)

(23) Theorem-proving versus Problem-solving (1965- ): theorem-proving tasks become a fundamental category with its own methodology distinct from other problem-solving methods. (AI is divided.)

(24) Engineering versus Science (1965- ): Computer science as an engineering method creates various artifacts, it can be also considered a unique part of an intellectual domain of mathematics. (AI divided computer science.)

(25) Language versus Tasks (1970-1980): resulted in a separation of a natural-language processing from task-posed programing. (in AI natural language becomes central.)

(26) Procedural versus Declarative Representation (1970-1980): Knowledge should be coded in procedural encoding information about the tasks in procedures and in declarative (clauses in resolution) representation. (AI shifted from theorem-proving, and appearance of PROLOG.)

(27) Frames versus Atoms (1970-1980): Representation of knowledge was made in frames (substantial collections of integrated knowledge) rather than in small atoms of fragments. (AI shifted to holistic representations.)

28) Toy versus Tasks (1975- ): reflects the tension between basic and applied research, toy and real tasks, and irrelevant and relevant basic science. (AI focuses on applications.) (See Table 1, p.191 and detailed descriptions that followed.)

Not yet raised in these discussions were the issues of the ethical use of technology and dehumanization of people by reducing them to a mechanism. In summary intellectual issues are generalized motivators for action as organizing principles.

NEWHOUSE, R.C., 1988:

Information transfer process includes (a) paradigms' identification, (b) creation and production of knowledge, (c) dissemination and diffusion of information, and (d) organization and preservation of knowledge.

Diffusion is the transmission of information from one culture to another; information dissemination is an act of distributing pieces of information. Primary factors influencing the diffusion of knowledge into social system are:

(1) The source of information, its credibility, trustworthiness and attractiveness: (a) Opinions are influenced by expert and trustworthy sources; (b) trustworthiness is increased if self-interest is eliminated and if communication is not perceived as deliberately attempting to influence the opinions; (c) influence is more powerful if sources are identified; and (d) attractiveness of the source increases its influence.

(2) Nature of the communication itself: (a) other things being equal, an emotional message will be more acceptable than a logical message; (b) Intelligence of the audience determines whether one or two-sided argument is more persuasive; (c) in the order of presentation the time is a key factor, and retention increases with recency of the message; (d) larger the discrepancy between knowledge and the position of an institution, more discomfort it creates which affects acceptance, change or rejection of the information as not credible.

(3) Unintentional social factors include: (a) mere exposure to the action of others, (b) social facilitation created by the presence of other people, (c) deindividualisation, which is a reduction of restraints against antisocial actions resulting in feelings of anonymity.

NICKERSON, RAYMOND S, 1981:

"At least one purpose of written or spoken communication is the transmission of information - the conveying of ideas - from one mind to another. The key question that needs to be answered . . . has to do with relationships between ideas and the symbol systems used to represent them." (p.277) "How is it that an idea gets translated into a structured sound wave or pattern of marks on paper, and, conversely, how is it that such patterns get translated back into ideas? One might define degree of comprehension as the degree to which the ideas that the pattern of sound or marks evokes in the mind of the listener or reader correspond to those that existed in the mind of the speaker or writer who produced those patterns." (Ibid.)

Nitecki, ANDRE, 1988:

Classification systems are divided into bibliothecal, bibliographical and cognitive functions. Bibliothecal function addresses physical location of items within a library, its efficiency and effectiveness are determined by (1) diversity of type of material in the collection, its size and the users profile, and (2) flexibility of the physical library environment.

Bibliographical function organizes recorded knowledge and information within the containers of the records (documents), and its usefulness to the users of the system is determined by their familiarity with the subject, their needs and educational background.

Cognitive function concentrates on the identity of the items defined in terms of their interrelationships with other items, and on the relevance of the bibliographic description in retrieval processes.

The author maintains that no classification can incorporate all the three functions, but should combine at least two of them, in order to improve the overall organization, access and retrieval of the records.

NITECKI, DANUTA A., 1993:

Using the qualitative methodology, the author analyzed library-related metaphors used by faculty, administrators and librarians in their letters about library problems, published in The Chronicle of Higher Education. Information systems can be evaluated in terms of content-driven, technology driven and Taylor's user-driven models. D. Nitecki's essay is based on the last model, stressing the importance of the user's evaluation of the information system and on Dervin qualitative methodology evaluating information systems in terms of user's perspectives (a 'sense-making' metaphorical model).

Accordingly, value judgments of information transfer is based not on value inherent in the message but is expressed by the receiver based on his perceived potential value determined by the information needs and environment in which the message is received.

In general, metaphors describe perceived problems in terms of the conceptual model held about the problem-related environment. Metaphors used in the letters to the editor describe the perceptions of their writers about library problems and expected solutions based on their own conceptual models of libraries.

To administrators libraries are the contributors to the social structure of the community; to faculty libraries are the depositories of research information resources supporting their own research and librarians see the library as a storehouse playing an active role in the environment.

NITECKI, JOSEPH Z., 1959:

Meaning of the several ultimate value concepts in ethical theories is compatible with the root-metaphors of the corresponding metaphysical hypothesis. Different definitions of 'good' in ethics are the consequences of different metaphysical assumptions of a relevant world hypothesis. This ethical relativism is relevant to the argument for intellectual freedom. A comparison is made between Pepper's world hypothesis (Formism, Mechanism, Contextualism and Organicism) and the ethical theories (Intuitivism, Empiricism, Emotivism and Informalism), interrelated by the root metaphors of similarity, machine, duration of a historical event and its integration.

It is concluded, that since ethical theories are compatible only with a corresponding world hypothesis, there can be no one universal definition of the ethical concept 'good.'

A modified version of Pepper's world hypothesis is interrelated with the theory of metalibrarianship in later essays.

---- 1963:

The significance of the concept of public interest in the philosophy of librarianship is discussed in terms of theories of public interest from procedural, conceptual and contextual vantage points.

--- 1964:

This is a revised and abbreviated version of the model developed in the 1963 essay, describing public interests' semantical relationships in the theory of librarianship.

---- 1968a:

The subject matter of library science is defined in terms of interrelationships between primary terms: a carrier of information, its content and receiver. Knowledge in librarianship is viewed as relations known between these primary terms, studied at the procedural, conceptual and contextual levels.

---- 1968b:

A practical application of the three-dimensional approach to the organization of the library card catalog is implied in the introduction of a three-dimensional catalog. Author and subject entries bring together related works; the author's arrangement provides a horizontal (alphabetic, procedural) listing of the writers, while subject listing offers a vertical, topical arrangement (contextual content) On the other hand, the title arrangement brings a unique feature of each work (conceptual title).

---- 1968c:

A response to Fairthorne's criticism of Nitecki's use of one triad in his model, rather than Fairthorne's twenty. The two models differ in approaches: Fairthorne proposes a mathematical model free of semantical and epistemological implications in information flow; Nitecki developed a philosophical synthesis, a macroscopic overview including in addition to information flow, other library functions.

Fairthorne acknowledges the three distinctive approaches to librarianship (resembling Weaver's technical, semantic and effectiveness levels), and places his Morphology model in one of them; Nitecki considers all three perspectives and interrelationships between them.

---- 1970:

This essay focuses on the description of a conceptual model of librarianship. Library system is defined in terms of logical relationships between (a) basic terms (carriers, their contents and receivers), (b) their constituents (need, goals, means, and their fulfillment) and (c) the attributes (efficiency, satisfaction, and disparity between goals and their accomplishment).

Three basic laws governing these relations are defined (laws of structure, operational and valuation), and a pattern of changing concepts is described by analogy with the general systems theory.

---- 1975:

A survey of various subjects covered by the library schools curricula indicated that philosophy of librarianship was not thought as a separate subject. It may be incorporated in general introductory historical and in courses like 'Communication of Knowledge and Ideas' or 'Library as a Social Organization.'

---- 1979a:

Metaphorical approach offers an insight into symbolic relations between conceptual vehicles, their meaning and interpretation. It provides a root-metaphor explaining a metaphysical nature of librarianship. Library science is interpreted metaphorically as a discipline uncommitted to any particular viewpoint. Based on ethical relativism, it is dedicated to intellectual freedom, it implies an open-end theory of knowledge and offers an orderly, logically consistent theory. The model is hospitable to any viewpoint.

---- 1979b:

It is suggested that the transmittal of orderly thoughts or information in a library situation differ from a conventional communication pattern. The major, easily recognizable characteristics of library discourse are reviewed, and models describing the actual, possible and necessary modes of library communication are proposed. The resulting threefold modality of a library discourse interrelates the physical, objective reality of the message communicated through its carrier, with the conceptual and subjective reality as it is perceived by the recipient of that message.

---- 1980a:

The emerging concept of metalibrarianship is applied to the theory of management in librarianship by offering a model illustrating the three-dimensional nature of library administration, encompassing the procedural-technical, the contextual- service oriented, and the conceptual-theoretical levels of librarianship. The conceptual management is distinguished from the traditional pragmatic definitions.

---- 1980b:

The term 'metalibrarianship' is defined as a set of concepts that interrelates users' needs for information with the means available for obtaining that information. It focuses on primary concepts, not their specific properties. The philosophical framework of the model is based on S. Pepper's theory about philosophy interpreted in terms of the world hypothesis.

Metalibrary discourse is about metaphorical relationships between the descriptions of some aspects of reality, recorded physically in the carriers of information, and that reality's perception in the minds of their interpreters. Its Sociological Realism's viewpoint is illustrated by librarians involvement in the affairs of its community. As brokers, they mediate between conflicting demands on the library by reconciling conflicting group interests.

Metalibrary metaphors interpret the constantly changing relations between given and newly perceived dimensions of knowledge by assisting patrons in discovering concepts new to them, and by providing necessary resources for expanding users' understanding of the concepts they already discovered.

---- 1983a:

Hypocrisy is defined as an intentionally deceptive interpretation of ethical principles of librarianship that interfere with the primary library mission to provide objective dissemination of knowledge. (It can be perceived as one of the 'noises' in the theory of librarianship). Predicament lies in the fact that although undesirable, hypocrisy cannot be easily eradicated.

---- 1983b:

The ghost syndrome in librarianship is manifested in the belief that computers or any other changes in library technology will drastically change the library primary mission to acquire, organize, preserve and serve available resources. The syndrome is also expressed in the confusion between metaphorically described information and knowledge, mind and computer and their real nature. They are not and will never be parts of the same logical category.

---- 1984a:

The essay discusses the relationships between staff morale and morale-related decisions in terms of procedures and policies regulating library activities (procedural), the principles guiding its operations (conceptual) and the actual interplay of these factors in library practice (contextual, environmental)

---- 1984b:

The austerity in library management is analyzed in terms of its impact on library policies (conceptual), services (contextual) and processes (procedural). A distinction is made between right and good managerial decisions. Right decisions maximize needed services and minimize the value loss that must be surrendered in the change. Good decisions are direct and unhypocritical. The former is ends-oriented, the latter means-justified.

---- 1984c:

It is suggested that information and knowledge are different stages of the same continuous process, in which an individual integrates newly perceived data into the already existing system of knowledge already known, linking together data previously comprehended, and thus expanding the scope of that person's understanding. A model is proposed that illustrates the empirical, rational and behavioral aspects of the data-information-knowledge continuum.

---- 1986:

There are three general kinds of reading: for entertainment (subjective), information (data gathering) or exploratory (creative personal interpretation of knowledge contained in the reading material). The activities involved in each of these reading can focus on the study of (a) reading processes

(physiological and psychological science of reading), (b) reading context (sociology of reading environment) and (c) reading content (thinking processes of the readers).

Interpretation of the text's meaning by readers is a domain of philosophical speculation about subjective relations between the meaning of the text and its effectiveness in communicating that meaning to the reader. Meaning is a metaphorical concept, a composite image in the reader's mind of various associations between signs, words and thoughts. Reading contributes to the definition of reality as a subjective image of the world projected by the reader through the filters of social and cultural value systems.

---- 1987a:

Common sense reflects metaphorically an initial recognition of simple elements in an often problem-intensive and complex situation. It can be examined from three different viewpoints. (a) A common sense conceptual generalization (constructing metaphorical predicates like 'naturalness' in seeing things as they appear on the surface); (b) common sense contextual tradition (cultural endorsement of communal past experiences); and (c) common sense processes (verifiable, pragmatically analyzed past and present actions). Together the three-dimensionality of the common sense concept emerges as conventional wisdom.

---- 1987b:

Personal knowledge of reality is subjective. The product of that knowledge is an aggregate of meaningful relations, organized into systems and recorded in carriers of information. The essence of metalibrarianship is expressed in the intellectual environment. Its model rests on a metaphorical synthesis relating physical matter with psychological ideas into three-dimensional aspects of reality as expressed in library collections of records (the intellectual environment), by juxtaposing the physiological matter-related dimension of library collections (their records) with the physiological dimension of the collection's content (as perceived by individual library user), and the philosophical dimension translating collection's content into particular library users interpretation of reality.

---- 1988a:

Intellectual environment is viewed as a process allowing an individual to integrate his or her various perceptions of reality into integrated total personal knowledge.

Reality is discussed in terms of its three-dimensional environment. (a) The physiological dimension provides an intellectual stimulation either external to the individual, or internal within an individual's past experiences. (b) The psychological dimension refers to the unique patron's reactions to physical or mental stimulations and its retention in the memory. (c) The philosophical dimension consists of conscious awareness of intellectual experiences by relating individual's past knowledge of reality to the new experience.

In the library model physiological dimension of reality is illustrated by the technical processes of acquiring, selecting and disseminating information records. The psychological dimension relates to the unique responses of patrons to library collections. The rational, analytical interpretation of relationships between stimuli and responses describes the philosophical dimension of reality.

The model implies that there is no one preferred way of interpreting reality and that neither librarianship nor information science alone is preconditions for a configurational (metalibrary) analysis of a constantly changing scope of information transfer.

---- 1988b:

One of the goals of this survey was to determining a degree of a consensus on a domain of information science by the faculty involved in the development of a doctoral program in information science in one library school.

The results of the study indicated a lack of agreement on the definition of information and information science, and a degree of divergence reflecting the specific views of the disciplines represented by the participants in the survey.

Definitions of information science were grouped into three clusters reflecting different perspectives. (1) Cognitive perspective encompassed in the definitions of artificial intelligence, semiotics/linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy and anthropology. (2) Socio-technological perspective included computer science, information and library sciences, information aspects in communication science, management science, economic and sociology. (3) Systems perspective incorporated information theory, cybernetiics and system theory.

The above variations in the definition of the domain of information science confirm the notion that information science is a megadiscipline, requiring an all-inclusive model.

---- 1990:

In his survey the faculty members of the American library and information science schools were asked to rank the relative importance of various topics in a hypothetical introductory course to the field. The questions were arranged in three groups reflecting major perspectives.

The conceptual cluster included the discussions of the essence of the field, its philosophy and theory. The procedural cluster related to the informational content of the field, its sources and services. The contextual cluster listed the environment, interdisciplinarity of the field and its professional aspects.

The results of the survey confirmed a lack of a consensus on the composition of the introductory course. The highest level of agreement was expressed by about 70% of respondents selecting one topic as high priority. The rating of the majority of topics asked in the questionnaire was scattered throughout the whole range of priorities.

Librarianship and information science are clearly disciplines in transition, with many claims made on their territory, but as yet very few attempts developed to interpret the discipline in terms of its heritage of selecting, organizing and facilitating the use of the society's cultural records. After all, the consensus is not imposed or planned, it emerges from the discipline's philosophical maturation.

----1994:

The study of metalibrarianship is presented in three parts. First part provides a historical background for the intellectual development of librarianship. In the second part the nature of philosophical inquiry is discussed. The last part outlines an intellectual environment, redefines the concept of information, proposes a model of metalibrary system and reviews its applications in library practice.

Metalibrarianship is here defined as a philosophical framework for a variety of approaches to recorded knowledge. It is an open system, addressing metaphysical essence, epistemological nature and ethical values and purposes of information agencies.

-

_ Metaphysical essence relates to the basic relationships between recorded concepts and their cognition. The epistemological nature of relations describes the process of balancing the empirical tendencies of reducing ideas to data, with the metaphysical claims of their independent existence. Ethical values and purposes of library operations are expressed by their ideal goal of providing satisfactory and objective service to the patron. This model is used as a framework for the present study.

OBOLER, ELI, 1976:

"In whatever technological form the library of the future emerges, it will still have the double function of acting as a repository and a communicating agent. It will be a storehouse for information and culture, as well as a conveyor of what its public needs and want, whether in literature, art, music, science, or any other part of knowledge and the arts." (p.240)

"Without intellectual freedom a librarian is only a bookkeeper, a storer, a book-handler. With it he can fulfill his rightful function as truly a guardian of the truth." (p.242)

Martha Gould (1985) in her review of the Oboler book emphasizes Oboler's warning about the consequences of accepting technological innovations that would disregard possible civil and political problems related to intellectual freedom and limited access to information. The new technology creates a potential danger of limiting access to expensive electronic formats and to reduce financial supports of libraries.

---- 1977:

This is a critique of Zoia Horn's notion that all material advocating censorship should be withdrawn from the library. Free access to all ideas implies inclusion of pro-sexist, pro-racist, non-sexist and non-racist material, concerning all sides of these issues.

"If the librarian as librarian in the performance of his/her duties and obligations to his/her institution becomes a social advocate in the library, then the whole marvelous tradition of the American library is dead." (p.1429)

---- 1979:

Quotes F.A. Ebert's description of a librarian as an unprejudiced book-selector, and the Ortega's notion of a librarian as 'master of the raging book" serving as a filter interposed between the reader and the 'torments' of books. Oboler adds his own definition of librarians' purpose as "to do everything possible to ensure a free flow of information and recreation and even enlightenment to his or her library's users. The librarian, in short, is an opener of blocked pathways in the maze of knowledge, a blazer of trails in the encompassing dark forest of ignorance, a leader in keeping human mind free," (p.22)

---- 1983:

This is a small collection of essays about philosophy of librarianship. It does not discuss intellectual freedom or censorship. One of the assumptions in the book is the notion that librarians must shift their attention from the focus on print media to the custodianship of the access to ideas recorded in a variety of formats.

O'BRIEN, M.D., 1891,

" A free library may be defined as the socialist's continuation school. While state education is manufacturing readers for books, state-supported libraries are providing books for readers. The two functions are logically related." (p.329)

The individual should buy his own books, thus being independent of public charity and free from the instrument of societal propaganda.

ODI, AMUSI, 1982:

In this paper a concern is expressed about the emerging trends in library and information science to quantify human behavior. This trend is based on a wrong assumption that reality can only be explained through hard data, from which mathematical, statistical and sociological values are derived. The fallacy is based on a failure to distinguish between statistical, numerical description and explanation.

Theoretical explanation is derived from the abstraction of empirical data, not from their generalizations.

The law of evidence is indisputable in research, the question is what the evidence consists of.

"The researcher brings together his personal, creative conception with his empirical observation to create a third thing, the offspring of this union: a theory." (p.315)

OGBURN, WILLIAM FIELDING, 1934:

Recreation, by competing with adult education is its enemy; the library should combine the two by providing books interestingly written and by using propaganda in its competition with other agencies. Propaganda and advertising are psychological stimuli to create a response.

The libraries could also provide the foresight, anticipating the needs of the patrons by knowing in advance about the publications of interests to their readers. It would compliment the historian's hindsight.

OGILVIE, RUTH A., 1940:

The author argues against impartiality, and for shaping public opinion. The significance of a library as a social force is illustrated by the very acts of suppression of library activities in dictatorship.

The librarians must be a powerful force in the shaping of public judgment, they must produce the evidence on which people can form their own beliefs. Librarians are not so much the teachers as guides with the duty to "shape the way of public thinking by offering touchstones against which one may judge the crucial issues of all time." (p.645)

O'HALLORAN CHARLES, 1967:

Librarians should accept some responsibilities for human existence by commitment to the idea that (1) human beings are important in making choices based on understanding, (2) librarians must help individuals to be informed, and (3) perform as challengers, following Socratic dictum of questioning simplicity of many assumptions about human existence.

Librarians can abandon practical concerns of 'how' of library techniques and activities by concentrating on mankind itself, its problems and progress.

---- 1980:

There are two basic library activities: (1) getting, organizing, storing, locating, providing books and (2) more relevant to human needs, providing psychological, affective service.

The image of a librarian as bibliophile is nowadays replaced by a more attractive image of the social activist/information specialist. However, nothing done are ever emotionally neutral or meaningless.

"Our generation of librarians has forgotten . . . what the old-fashioned scholar librarians knew so well: that the promotion of the progress of men's minds, a progress that is depending upon knowing the products of men's minds, brings to the librarian the satisfaction of knowing that he has indeed helped to shape the world!" (p.4)

OKKO, MARJATTA, 1985:

The triadic relationships between practice, education and research are considered as continuous actions and as different aspects of the same dynamic totality.

The triadic totality is represented by a triangle that reflects relative significance of each component, with each apex representing a maximum value (its absolute dominance in that phase of relationship) with the other two components, at the opposite side of the triangle, having no impact on that aspect of relations. "Correspondingly the totality can be divided into three domains, each dominated by the phase represented by the apex but it contains varying amounts of the other two phases. " (p.3)

For example, in the triangular relationships between a library (L), archives (A), and documentation/information activities (D): L-A-D is the totality; L-A represents custody of documents and services that are based on them as opposite to information handling; L-D represents bibliographic aspects as opposed to handling unique records; A-D stands for records management as opposed to the handling of published material.

Similarly, in the triangle between totality of LAD, R (research) and E (education): E-LAD combines practical and pragmatic approach vis-à-vis research; R-LAD represents research and development (R&D) approach; and in E-R pair the elements are considered analytically in a broad context.

OLAISEN, JOHAN L., 1985:

Paradigms are the foundations of theories, defining the domain of a discipline, its research questions and their interpretations.

The paper addresses the metatheoretical aspects of library science with qualitative, limited generalizations about central discipline's tendencies. Science is interpreted as a balanced transformation of knowledge (generalized reality), problems (discrepancies between known and unknown) and instruments (methods).

The scientific orientation prescribes the relationships between data sentences (empirical), theory sentences (hypotheses), and value sentences (a preferred world).

The science triangle consists of (1) data (D) - theory (T) - values (V), and (2) interrelated: Empiricism (D-T), Criticism (D-V) and Constructivism relations (T-V).

Library science is analyzed in terms of four paradigms: (1) Functionalism of empiricism, (2) socio-political predictable uniformities in library behavior, (3) subjective, studying library behavior from the participant's viewpoint, and (4) liberating paradigm identifying psychic and social processes.

The author uses metaphors as a way of understanding aggregate experiences. He differentiates between a number of metaphors: (1) functional, emphasizing purposive decision making, (2) organismic, differentiating between library production and user orientation, (3) a 'trademark royal user' metaphor expressing patrons' loyalty to the library, (4) 'political economy' metaphor describing the productive economic and political power interplay, (5) a 'political marketplace' metaphor determining the future functions of libraries, and (6) 'spaceship earth' metaphor emphasizing the interdependence.

Subjective worlds' metaphors include: (1) 'experiencing man' metaphor of patrons' everyday experiences, (2) 'irrational man' metaphor of undefinable aspects of human behavior, and (3) 'language and text' metaphor that refers to the spontaneous language use as more expressive.

The liberating metaphor concentrates on the alienating role of library theory and practice. It is subdivided into metaphors of (1) the 'victimized user' (the nonusers), (2) the 'functional man' focuses on the functions of the librarian rather than library users' needs, and (3) the 'new man' metaphor calls for collections adjusted to knowledge growth, organized by functions.

"The library field has limited itself to a functionalist orientation (i.e., logical empiricism) and has . . . remained a one-dimensional science concerned with technology and problem solving." (p.148) "The socio-political, subjective worlds, and liberating paradigms challenge the assumption of functionalism by generating metaphors resulting in quite different research questions. " (Ibid.)

OLSGAARD, JOHN N., 1989:

Olsgaard asks philosophical questions: how mind makes the transition from symbols to thoughts; is there a pattern, and how it can be optimized? How do people think? How a computer may reach an independent conclusions by limiting computer decision making to a very narrow basis in a limited field of expertise?

Information science consists of (1) bibliomnetrics (statistical distribution of information), (2) storage and retrieval of information: (focus on speed and accuracy), and (3) transmission and use of information. Information/knowledge transfer includes: (a) linguistics (study of logic in the use of language), (b) communication (e.g., natural language processing), and (c) computer science in vivo (real life) and in vitro (in artificial environment).

ORACION, LEVI V., 1983:

Different philosophies of public libraries fail because "they are too much concerned with their own parochial interests, and cannot therefore serve as a philosophy for the public library, the very nature of which demands that its philosophy be derived from larger and more ultimate concerns which will set it in the context of its relation to the socio-political order." (p.120)

ORMAN OSCAR C., 1935:

The head-in-sand ideology of librarianship must be replaced by a philosophy of action. "There is no place in library practice for the traditional librarian who is entirely dependent upon others for a library financial support. Philanthropy has ceased. We exist in a government of pressure groups. Librarians must either exert their own pressure, or be forced to accept starvation budgets and satisfaction alone in meaningless plans." (p.827)

In an 1936 editorial response to this article, Wilson Bulletin for Librarians disagrees with Orman's notion that the philosophy of librarianship can be simply expressed in a single word like 'action' and that this by itself would result in getting financial support.

---- 1940:

Orman admits his error in believing that a philosophy of librarianship could be formulated about the concept of 'the will to act', expressing only the form but not the substance of librarians thoughts and actions. Now he thinks that " a proper function of all librarians is to understand propaganda and to inform other of its forms and effects." (p.450)

ORR, J.M., 1977:

The philosophy of library system is defined in terms of seven laws of general systems theory. LAW 1: "Individuals prefer states and, if distributed, tend to try to regain equilibrium or homeostasis." LAW 2: "Individual interacts with environment and exhibits behavior, action and change." LAW 3:"The behavior of an individual is explained by the structure of individuals of which it is composed.", LAW 4: "Systems are either deterministic or probabilistic." LAW 5: "Growth is an important pattern of behavior." LAW 6: "The dynamic relationships between individuals are either parasitic, competitive or complementary." LAW 7: "An understanding of the communications between individuals is essential for a full comprehension of the system." (pp.4-10)

Philosophy of librarianship developed as a communication system. It is a collective memory of human, supreme quantitatively but slow in its retrieval function. Its own creative ability is nil, but it complements people's mind by feeding it with data on which the recreation of knowledge is nourished.

Information received from the library is at best secondhand, and is not comprehensible to a person without appropriate prior knowledge.

The close connection of a library with the art of writing, teaching and learning already existed in temples of early civilization. Library specialization resulted in separating a museum from the library.

Both publishing and libraries disseminate books to readers, one motivated by monetary profit, the other by the needs of the reader. Interlibrary service is an idealistic and altruistic design to tap the total resources available, to overcome not only the deficiencies of individual libraries but also of the book trade.

" A library is a communicatory tool created by man to complement his own deficient memory. It is a store for his graphically produced records no matter what their format.

Its relationship with man is cyclic: it feeds his mind with information, much of which is reprocessed and returned to the library. The library system therefore exhibits growth.

Its real effect on society is probabilistic, but over a length of time it undoubtedly helps it to change.

In the long run, it is a complementary system to the other communicatory tools of man, but in the short term it is competitive with other communication media." (p.212)

ORTEGA JOSE Y GASSET, 1934:

" Up until the present, the librarian has been principally occupied with the book as a thing, as a material object. From now on he must give his attention to the book as a living function. He must become a policeman, master of the raging book." (p.151)

"It is necessary, then, to create a new bibliographic technique, one of vigorous automatic action. This technique will raise to its highest power, the labor that begun by librarians some centuries ago in the form of catalogs . . . the hour has arrived for the collective organization of book production; for the book itself, as a human modality, this organization is the question of life or death. (p.153)

"Furthermore, the librarian of the future must direct the non-specialized reader through the 'selva selvaggia' of books. He will be the doctor and the hygienist of reading . . . the mission of the librarian ought to be, not as it is today the simple administration of the things called books, but the adjustment, the setting to rights, of the vital function which is the book." (p. 154)

---- 1935:

"Today more reading is done: the convenience of receiving with little or no effort innumerable ideas stored in books and periodicals is going to accustom man, and has already accustomed the average man, not to think for himself and not to think over what he reads, which is the only way of making it truly his. This is the most serious negative factor of the book . . . I imagine the future librarian as a filter between books and man." (p.307)

OTTEN, KLAUS W., 1974:

The development of science of information is traced in four steps: (1) considered on the structural, analytical and semantic levels; (2) distinguished as coding, statistical and transfer-of-meaning; (3) based on recognition of interdependency between matter, energy and information; and (4) established importance of communication processes in information.

Information can be (a) static (stored) or dynamic (in process), (b) as a commodity (produced, stored, transported and lost), (c) as a process (raw information transformed into meaningful information). In turn, (a) static information is structural, (b) as a process it is probabilistic, bringing a surprise element, and (c) as a commodity it has semantic value to its users.

Energy, matter and information are interdependent, limiting information-related processes, and suggesting philosophical questions: (1) Can information exists without physical representation? (2) Can information be understood by virtue of its physical and measurable manifestations? (3) What determines the relationships between informational quantities and the measurable, physically observable correlates? (4) Is information a continuum or is it quantified? (5) What are the limits of information manipulation by matter and energy? (6) What are the laws that impose limits in operations on information in a given physical system? (p. 103)

OTTEN KLAUS and ANTHONY DEBONS, 1970:

A distinction is made between information and operations on information. Information is a fundamental abstract phenomenon; operations on information involve manipulations based on its own laws. "The ability to translate complex information processing tasks into sequences of elementary operations may be accepted as evidence for the fundamental nature of information and of information processing." (p.90)

Information theory evolved from the measurements of signal transmission over communication channels; information is here a measure of an expected value. Metascience provides (a) descriptions of common information based on related disciplines, (b) common language, and (c) means for translating knowledge from one discipline to another. In metascience of information the same functions are performed by offering: (a) common bases for information-oriented disciplines, (b) common framework for information technologists, and (c) abstract theories explaining information phenomena and the theories describing human relationships to information.

Information science as a part of library and documentation focuses on laws of classification, information storage and retrieval. Metascience of information is viewed as a special science concentrating on the foundations of information-related sciences and technologies but not their contents.

"Our starting point must be the power of libraries, which is the power of the materials they contained, the power which is contained in those materials . . . librarians forget that the objects they deal with are means to ends, and it is the ends which are our raison d'etre." (p.96) "There is a tendency to over-emphasize the form in which content comes, rather than the content itself - to think in terms of books, periodicals, slides, microforms, and perhaps to arrange them accordingly, whereas in actual fact it is the content of these things which readers are generally interested in irrespectively of form." (Ibid.)

It is "a part of the librarian's role to be a catalyst bringing together the two necessary elements in the reaction which will release the power we are talking about, library materials, and library users." (p.97)

PANSEGROUW, J.G., 1988:

The author discusses the philosophy of Cosmonomic Law, pointing out that "an important principle is that all theoretical thought proceeds from a basic motive - in this instance a Christian motive - and that autonomous thought does not exist. Theoretical thought consists of an analysis of the different aspects of reality, experienced integrally in pre-theoretical though. Every aspect is subject to distinctive laws . . . and aspects are therefore irreducible." (p.170)

The author applies these principles to an analysis of libraries and librarianship "in an attempt to evaluate the potential role of this philosophical theory in establishing the foundations of Library and Information Science." (Ibid.)

---- 1990:

The author compares the Darwinian theory of natural selection with Piaget's theory on information-seeking behavior as the primary mechanism in evolution. He criticizes the acceptance of the former model in Library and Information Science as ambiguous, failing to reconcile the notion of intellectual freedom with the concept of social responsibility. He prefers Piaget's theory for its focus on cognitive structure.

"It is argued that knowledge of the implications of the two radically different approaches is necessary in research and in professional practice." (p.241)

PARGELLIS, STANLEY, 1952:

The bibliography was considered by Butler as an overall discipline of librarianship. Collection of books is selected and organized to meet the needs of an individual patron. Hence any libraries preserve cumulative intellectual content of culture. Librarians can fulfill their responsibility only by being familiar with the collection.

This ideal of not only organizing but also understanding the library collection in terms of its potential use, is a twentieth century equivalent of the seventeenth century encyclopedic ideal of a universal librarian as a scholar. Both approaches assume, that without a library no country can be civilized.

PARK, CHUNG I, 1987:

"The new librarians or information specialists are ambidextrous' they maintain a passion for books and reading while keeping themselves conversant with information technologies which are no more than tools. To reflect this new capacity of ours we need new names [names like] information scientist, information manager, or information whatever give us a sense of new directions [helping] us to be tuned to the computerization of general society [and] provides us with the opportunity to upgrade our status." (p.6)

PARKER, J. STEPHEN, 1974:

The author questions the future impact of Western, Anglo-Saxon philosophy of librarianship on the development of libraries in other countries.

It is feasible that with the decline of Western industrial civilization, and shift of political and economic power to oil-producing states, the basic concept of individualism may be rejected, thus changing the future role of libraries in those countries.

PARKER, MARILYN M. and ROBERT J.BENSON, 1987:

Information economics measures and justifies the value of information technology based on business performance. Information is considered a new conceptualization of a decision making process.

New techniques in evaluating information include a number of value-concepts. (a) Both, value linking and acceleration analysis of assess costs that enable benefits to be achieved in other departments, are rooted in economics rather than business finance. (b) Value restructuring analysis assumes that because a function exists within an organization it has value. (c) innovation and investment valuation are applied when the financial issues change from measuring to evaluating and choosing among new alternatives.

Underlying all this is a concept of change. The real benefit of information technology arises from a change in business. Without change there is no benefit and information technology becomes irrelevant.

Information economics expands the traditional economics by the focus of value on: (1) enhanced view of returns on investment, (2) strategic match, (3) competitive advantage, and (4) management information. It also implies five classes of risk and uncertainty: (1) strategic (likelihood of success) (2) organizational (dependence of the information system project on new capabilities), (3) information infrastructure risk (environmental risk) (4) definitional uncertainty (specificity of the user's objectives), and (5) technological uncertainty (dependence on new technology).

PARRISS, JEAN, 1958:

Many people do not know what they want; librarians ought to adapt Madison Avenue selling technique, by appealing to hidden needs of patrons such as emotional security, ego-gratification, satisfaction of creative desires, fulfillment of the sense of belonging and immortality, by suggesting to patrons a right book.

PEACE, NANCY E. and NANCY FISHER CHUDACOFF, 1979:

Current library thinking focuses on organization and dissemination of information regardless of a format. Hence librarianship should also encompass archives. Their common ground is the control of information, although archivists focus on a unique technique.

Both disciplines should have the same kind of education with added special training for the archivist in history of archives, appraisal, arrangement and their description.

The introductory courses on the nature of librarianship should encompass all types of information professions.

PEARSON CHARLS and VLADIMIR SLAMECKA, 1983:

Informatics is a semiotic discipline encompassing information, computer science, engineering, technology, robotics, cybernetics; most of them are technologies or professions rather than sciences.

Informatics is concerned with symbolic expressions and their manipulation with all elementary kinds of signs.

The minimal atomic elements carrying meaning and information are called signs, and the basic science of information, called semiotics deals with the structure of signs. (how they carry and process information and meaning).

Charles Peirce divided the structure of all signs into: (1) the medium, the body or existence of a sign, (2) the object or designation of a sign, and (3) the interpreter, interpreting a sign. Morris named them as syntactic, semantic and pragmatic dimensions.

Information can be manipulated by means of: (1) deductive and inductive reasoning, and (2) retroductive, method of reasoning (i.e., inventing a hypothesis, which, if true, would explain some known results, indispensable in nomological sciences).

Knowledge and action oriented components of informatics should not be separated, since there is no such thing as pure and applied science, only good and bad science.

PEIRCE, PATRICIA, 1951:

The author compiled the first American bibliography of philosophy of librarianship, covering the period 1930's-1950's.

Peirce noticed a lack of well-developed library philosophy, and a constant change in the library functions and scopes. This in turn may suggest that the change may be the only enduring principle in Henri Bergson's sense, thus bringing library philosophy into the family of philosophical disciplines.

The reviewed essays revolve around three central concepts: (a) library (not librarianship); (b) book (not its content), and (c) the philosophy of librarianship (not its theory).

The study creates an impression of a search among librarians for respectability: (a) to glorify the function of custodianship, taking a credit for the value of material collected and protected by librarians; (b) to identify librarianship with better established professions, e.g., teaching, and (c) to express a need for belonging.

These considerations result in confusing-or fusing- objectives with attributes, as if saying that since the chair is to seat on, the function of the chair dealer is to promote sitting activity.

The author's review points to (1) complains about lack of philosophy explained by a lack of interest, and pragmatic character of librarianship; (2) a need for the philosophy prompted by a drive for professional status, (3) present uncertain scope and purpose of librarianship and (4) a lack of a commonly agreed statement about librarianship.

PENLAND, PATRICK R., 1971:

The library is considered as a process not a place. In cybernetic model of communication information is processed by the adaptive control organism which selects from the incoming stimuli those that contain relevant information. The selection is directed by the preferences and concepts already existing in the mind of the receiver.

The librarian's function is to reduce the patrons' entropy (of uninterpreted stimuli) by counseling them on the areas of needed research. Here counseling and information retrieval are the two sides of the same coin.

"Once assisted in vocalizing his need, the search begins for information from documentary sources that will help the individual understand and synthesize his previous disparate experiences." (p.6)

---- 1982:

"The client-centered librarian shares a philosophy similar to the educator toward the development of personal esteem and self-provider lifestyles; and the learning that is facilitated is rooted in individual self-initiative." (p.45)

Librarians become 'missing links' in the learner-teacher transformation, providing 'a shopping center' access to self-help through activities such as outreach to the intercultural community, access to referral, exchange and consultant services.

PENNIMAN, W. DAVID, 1987:

The author proposes a model bridging the gap between technical possibilities and actual implementation of technology in information transfer. In that model crucial are the interventions (moving ideas from creation to application) and feedback (accountability in a form of analysis of availability of technology and market for possible services).

Librarians must provide strategies for expanding services with cost constraints by becoming innovators, interveners and analyzers, considering the library as business venture, as well as social institution, competing with other agencies for limited resources.

---- 1991:

The author discusses the responsibilities of the library to shape the future, not be shaped by it, by developing people-oriented information delivery systems focused on social responsibility of librarians and by changing from the role of a gatekeeper to that of information deliverers. "The success of a library will not be measured by the amount of information it collects, but by how effectively it delivers that information." (p.26)

PERITZ, BLUMA CHEIl, 1977:

Review of the early research philosophy in librarianship offers a historical context for the development of the research in later periods.

"The philosophy of research which evolved during the period of intellectual ferment of the late twenties and early thirties was both broad in its outlook and practical in its application. Firmly founded on a view of the library as a social and educational agency it sought to improve the library's functioning through a scientific assessment of the needs and motivations of the public, through the analysis (by whatever method) of the material available for the satisfaction of these needs, and through the evaluation of the library's performance. The main focus was the functions and roles of the library rather than the processes of library work [applying] methods and results from other disciplines, mainly from psychology, the social science and education." (p.12)

PERRY, BRIAN, 1986:

Currently the basic research philosophy is to support information-technology-related research that focuses on the relevance of information technology to information community.

The research programs listed by the British Library Research and Development Department provides examples of the current trends in information research. The subjects include applications of optical disks and networking in publishing, archival and library activities, online public catalog, information policies role of information in business and electronic publishing.

PERRY, JAMES W., 1956:

The "analysis of the nature of human knowledge leads directly to important implications for the development of systems for classification, indexing, and, in general, for analyzing graphic records so that they may be retrieved and correlated. As the range of observed phenomena and events broadens, our ability to correlate observations must be made flexible and comprehensive. This requirement exerts a direct influence on methods for processing and using graphic records." (pp.97-98).

"The challenge to librarians . . . is to develop methods, procedures, systems and equipment that will enable our ability to use and to extend human knowledge to keep pace with its unprecedental expansion." (p.99)

PETERSON, KENNETH G., 1983:

This essay on library ethics is based on three assumptions: (1) all humans have sets of value, (2) ethical behavior rest within a shared interest, and (3) behavior becomes unethical when it favors special interest out of proportion to interest of society as a whole.

Librarians' code of ethics involves: commitment to intellectual freedom, free access to information, high level, fair and equitable service, resistance of censorship, protection of user's rights to privacy, adherence to due process, equality of opportunities, distinction between personal philosophy and that of the institution, and avoidance of personal gains at the expense of users, colleagues or employing institution.

Application of professional ethics to a library situation is illustrated by a number of behavioral attitudes. (a) In collection development: examination of priorities honestly and realistically, resistance of pressures and overreliance on interlibrary loans. (b) In communication: its absence, avoidance of selected release of information, or providing different interpretation to different people, (c) In professional behavior: integrity of the text (not compromising authors' creative work), commitment, teaching, administrative competence, honesty in research, respect of other people, admission of own mistakes, commitment to continuing education, and recognition of achievements by others.

PETOCZ, L., 1969:

Aristotle's analysis of change consisted of isolating three elements: terminus a quo, terminus ad quem, and the process. The terminus ad quem, the end of the process, is clearly identifiable with the reader; the process itself can be identified with communication, that is, with the transfer of information; while the terminus ads quo is either the books or the librarians or both. The lack of a satisfactory answer which of the two it is, causes ambiguity and confusion.

Library science has been concerned with the communication processes requiring psychological knowledge of the reader. Hence Piaget's research in child psychology is of high relevance to library science by developing genetic dimension of epistemology.

PICKUP, JOHN A., 1987:

Common characteristics of the information profession include: (a) concern about organization of external knowledge and its use together with the internal knowledge about itself, (b) use of information in decision making, and (c) information monitoring of change.

Responsibilities are divided between (a) librarians responsible for information sources and their structuring, (b) services of assembling and selecting information, (c) 'pro-active intelligence' services rationalizing, correlating and analyzing the use of information.

"The business we are in is . . . the support of the continued progress of mankind and civilization, by making possible the effective use and application of the growing fund of knowledge." (p.290) "It is the science of information use, rather than of storage and retrieval." (Ibid.)

PIERCE, SYDNEY J., 1992:

Librarians and library students should be expected to read classic works dealing with theory, and intellectual history of librarianship. Pierce rejects the excuses that librarianship has no seminal thinkers or as a young discipline it did not yet developed its own theory. Librarianship and social sciences emerged at the same time in late nineteenth century, yet some sociological search for intellectual roots extends far into the past, and so should librarians' foundations.

Educators, students and practitioners would benefit from reading more about works heard about but never read. "If older books and articles turn up in search of the professional literature, find out what they have to say. Browse old volumes of professional journals, they remain both relevant and readable . . . works of quality are there, waiting for us to (re)discover them." (p.643) "If we don't learn to respect our own intellectual history, who else will?" (Ibid.)

PLAISS, AMRK, 1983:

The author criticizes H.S. White, for his preference in library education for the intellectual and philosophical focus rather than for teaching library skills.

"Library education must be empirical to produce competent beginning librarians. Students must be thought what resources are useful in the selection, organization, and retrieval of information, and how to use these resources . . . But library schools, obsessed with 'professionalism' fail to produce

competent beginning librarians." (p.618)

White's "theory of library education coincides with Jesse H. Shera's statement that 'the primary aim of education for librarianship should be training of the intellect in matters pertaining to human knowledge." (Ibid.) According to Plaiss, "librarianship is a help, a guide, a tool in the pursuit of knowledge or information. It brings together patron and information, nothing more." (Ibid.)

POND KURT and DWIGHT E. BURLINGAME, 1984:

To cooperate means to work together for a common objective or to unite in producing a desired effect. This definition implies that cooperation requires coordinating actions, sharing goals and coordinating attitudes for a harmonious behavior of involved library staffs.

Cooperation as an activity is a means to ends; the activities and their objectives must be distinguished to avoid false inferences. Selection of cooperative objectives is crucial in assuring the occurrence of cooperation and the successful completion of the project. Librarians must rely on probabilities rather than certainties.

The philosophical principles of cooperation provided a base for formulating procedures that are instrumental in achieving the desired objectives of increased serials acquisition.

POOLE, HERBERT, 1985:

Information science is (a) practice-oriented, (b) lacking a consensus on its definition, and (c) its intellectual foundation has no satisfactory supporting theory.

The author discusses a number of attempts to construct a theory for information science by using a variety of research methods.

Slamecka proposed three clusters of research: formal, cognitive and social. Poole focuses on the second and third research type, by investigating the suitability of Merton's theory of the middle range for information science.

The middle-range theory is defined as "a low-level theoretical statement intermediate to a general system theory which is too remote for the empirical situation to account for what is observed, and to descriptions of particular situations from which the ability to generalize is restricted." (p.26) It has its roots in Francis Bacon's 'middle axioms'.

The theory provides an approach for research on special theories appropriate for the available and limited data, each constituting 'building blocks' of systems theory. It can guide empirical inquiries, serve as an intermediate theory, uses abstractions and empirical tests, and ends in developing special theories that consolidate empirical findings, based on the large amount of empirical data.

The book is criticized by A.M. Schrader (1986) for lack of sufficient evidence for his theory and poor review of relevant literature.

POWELL, B.E., 1960:

"The library is essential to continuance of a democratic society. It is playing a critical role in our nation's destiny. Every thinking person needs the information, the background that only reading can give. The library's role is not passive, but a dynamic one that places great responsibility in the hands of the librarian. As a custodian of the intellectual arsenal of democracy, librarians must assume a role of a leadership in safeguarding and advancing our democratic heritage." (p.60)

POWELL, JUDITH W. and ROBERT B. LELIEUVRE, 1979:

Authors discuss the application of Samples (1976) model of metaphoric mind. Metaphoric mind is 'the mirror image' of the rational mind, considering all things as undifferentiated, holistic unified part of the world.

In the brain the left cerebral hemisphere is a logical organizer; the right hemisphere provides a holistic perception and relations, thus justifying the distinction between rational and metaphoric modes of consciousness.

"Samples argued that science, psychology, and educational theory and practice are based on a philosophy of linearity . . . (i.e., logic) and use a process of linearity (i.e., language) (leaving) untapped right cerebral hemisphere functions, the metaphoric mind." (p.55)

Children move between the two rational and metaphoric experiences, reflecting play-work sequences in learning. The library is a primary storehouse of knowledge and information and the only place that provides an environment for interrelating the rational and metaphoric experiences, thus offering an education for a complete person.

This model is learner-centered, making the content of library collection more relevant and personal by making use of thinking, feeling and fantasizing with minimal anxiety-producing and minimally threatening.

POWELL, LAWRENCE CLARK, 1954:

The book represents an esthetic and moral approach to librarianship promoting learning, liberty, understanding and tolerance. The librarian is a bookman, administrator, educator, and public servant.

Powell describes passion for books, considering bookman more important than an administrator, but he also advocates avoidance of extremism, since administration is needed to make book efficiently available and preserved.

The ideal librarian should: (1) be bookman by choice, education and experience, (2) be a teacher, (3) oppose censorship, (4) value books as artifacts, symbols, and as alive, not dead things.

---- 1957:

Powell maintains: "(1) that books are basically useful, that they will be supplemented but not replaces, (2) that people need books and the nourishment they contain, and (3) that librarianship consists essentially of collecting and preserving books and of enabling people to instruct the mind and delight the spirit with books." (p.313)

"Let us not teach librarianship as science and techniques

. . . rather should it be taught as a human calling of service to people. In the beginning the why of librarianship is more important than the how." (p. 316)

---- 1959:

A good librarian (a) is energetic, (b) has an encyclopedic mind, (c) is honest and selfless, (d) orderly, (e) tolerant, (f) courageous, and (g) dedicated to the service of others.

" Earth, air, fire, and water are the elements of physical matter. Curiosity, perception, courage, and dedicated belief are my elements of good librarian. O Lord, help us be such!" (p.46)

---- 1986:

This is an autobiography. W.Goodwin (1987) in his review of his book says: "As the library and society becomes more technocentric, as education becomes less liberal, and as the modern world becomes more ruthless, violent, and bizarre, the value of humanistic spokesman like Powell seems embattled."(p.469) The beginning of the autobiography "corresponds roughly with the moment when library 'service' became library 'science,' when 'matters of organization, techniques, networking, and bibliographical control took center stage." (Ibid.) "The revival of humanistic librarianship may be chimeric . . . but the book remains [the expression] of that simple, but potentially world-changing union of book and reader." (W.Goodwin, 1987, p. 469)

PRATT, ALLAN D., 1982:

This is a discussion of library and information science in the context of human communication processes, by proposing a model for information that establishes "a 'philosophy' of library service which is consistent both with the traditional view of the profession and with the properties of the communication model." (p.3)

The model interrelates five elements: source-receiver-medium-language-purpose, which in turn consists of ten triads, arranged in four groups of relations between (1) source and receiver, (2) source only, (3) receiver only, and (4) neither source or receiver. "This model of communication, of image alteration through the creation and use of graphic records, can serve as a framework for the delineation of the scope of both information science and librarianship." (p.22)

Information is a process of 'in-formation', defined as the name for a class of events, that alter the image held in the mind. To avoid confusion, Pratt proposes a new name for this kind of information: 'emmorphosis': "a process of change which occurs within the human mind upon receipt and integration into the mind of a structured message received directly or indirectly from some human source." (p.38) He further restricts the meaning of emmorphosis to changes initiated by the receipt of recorded, graphic messages, with humanistic interest in 'meta-facts' (the ideas expressed in the graphic records) and meta-records ('which is of, or about the record but not its intrinsic part').

Information science is defined as a study of the creators, users, uses, characteristics and distribution of graphic records. "Under the theory proposed here, no third-party observer can determine with great accuracy whether or not the informative event will in fact cause these changes in the inquirer's mind, because essential issue is the 'meaning' of the documents to the user." (p.40)

PREDEEK, ALBERT, 1939:

"The underlying idea of American librarianship is deeply associated with the cultural, sociological, and economic conditions of the nation." (p.445)

The fundamental ideas of the American library are education, culture and the nation. The firm belief of American people in the perpetual progress and improvement of mankind through education, learning and reading is due to the remnants of the Puritan conception of life and is the more understandable

because in earlier times the book was practically the only mediator of learning and culture and the only distributor of ideas." (p.447)

"A decidedly new conception of librarianship and of the library profession is coming into shape in the library schools, the ultimate aim being a scientific investigation of the phenomenon 'library' and of its functions from sociological, administrative, legal, and cultural points of view." (p.471)

PROKOP, MARY, 1983:

In the relationships between personal and professional ethics of the public librarian the dilemma is created by a conflict between different approaches on issues such as intellectual freedom, censorship, job performance standards and professional behavior.

Ethics is defined as the part of philosophy dealing with questions concerning the nature and source of value, rightness, duty and related matters. Among its theories (a) relativism maintains that the judgment of right and wrong depends upon the observer, (b) hedonism assumes that behavior is justified if it results in happiness.

In general, morality is defined by situation, or ethical decision governed by intellect and ability to reason. Attitude influences behavior, hence personal ethics affects professional behavior.

Professional ethics is service-oriented but in terms of client's needs rather than his desires, thus leaving to librarians the determination as to what is actually needed. This results in a subjective judgment about users' actual needs.

The public librarian is responsible for meeting information needs of society at large, which supports the library, but which is also pluralistic. It is a 'myth' to consider the library as a neutral institution, providing free and total information access to all segments of society. The concept of neutrality contradicts professional commitment to serve all the people, by selecting material in terms of community standards, and for providing the patron exactly what he needs.

There are basically two ethical views in librarianship (a) the criticism of a 'gatekeeper' notion of providing information without consideration of the way it may be used or how it impacted on society. Here professionalism means extended accountability similar to the responsibilities of a physician, who does not give the patient what he wants, and (b) the view that the librarian should not superimpose his view on a given situation, personal subjectivity is unethical.

The ethics of professional behavior is determined by profession's knowledge base. Librarians are responsible for technology (organization, storing etc.) of information rather than the in-depth knowledge in any discipline. This prevents them to give professional advice on any specific subject, but it requires provision of full and impartial access to available information, irrespectively of the consequences resulting from the use of that information.

Three ethical types of librarians are identified: (1) principled both professionally and personally, (2) expedient with inconsistent behavior, and (3) subscribing to one ethical standard only (professional or personal).

The author suggests specific solutions to the dilemma: (1) professional standards should be disseminated and enforced, (2) ethical norms should be based on community requirements and local library role, defining ethics for that particular institution, and (3).the library policies should provide well defined accountability of librarians.

PUNGITORE, VERNA L., 1989:

The basic assumption of this study is the premise that there is no one generic or typical public library, and hence to single model for public library operations.

The author points to two historical approaches that interpret the rationale for the development of public libraries in USA: (a) traditional view maintaining that the motives of library founders were altruistic aiming at self-education and self-improvement of population, and (b) the revisionistic view seeing the establishment of a public library as a device for controlling the masses and maintaining the status quo.

The lesson of library history points to the importance of library adaptation to the changing social needs. However, any response to the changing environment would require modification of some basic principles, such as, for example, the commitment to intellectual freedom and unbiased access to information. This in turn, may pose a paradox: "An agency attempting to promote social ethics rarely does so by allowing the opposition equal time. It may prove difficult for public librarians to continue to make available dissenting opinions on social issues if they embrace fully the role of social change agent." (p. 40)

PUTNAM, HERBERT, 1915:

The essay offers a legalistic defense of public ownership of books in general and specifically of ephemeral publications held in the public library (they reflect needs of current readers).

Too much print can not damage people by reading too much. To serve all levels of population, a library must provide for all tastes. The quality of the reading can be improved by actual reading and librarian's 'mediation' in selecting books suitable to patrons' needs.

Putnam recommends open access (better books will be selected more often), use of staff to counsel patrons, and acquisition of current fiction, kept for one year only. The advantages of reading current fiction (i.e., books contemporary with their readers) are in relaxing the attitude toward a book, requiring no effort and increasing the use of the library (as contrasted with the past attitude of ignoring non-readers).

PYLYSHYN, ZENON W. (1983):

Cognitive science is primarily an empirical natural science concerned with problems in information science related to the exercise of intelligence in natural and social environment.

It is: (1) formalistic in terms of symbolic mechanism, (2) functional explaining biological, biochemical and biophysical laws in terms of information processing functions, (3) computer technique formulating and explaining its theories, (4) top-down analysis stressing general cognitive skills rather than accounting for empirical particulars. (6) its approach is phenomenological with existential notions of significance and meaningfulness of behavior.

Cognition is explained in terms of regularities in semantically interpreted symbolic representations. Following disciplines are relevant to cognitive science: (1) anthropology, (2) computer science, (3) linguistics, (4) psychology (5) neuroscience, and (6) philosophy.

The above disciplines are interrelated; considered in sets of three, they represent separate areas of research, e.g., the triad of philosophy-psychology-linguistics studies language and its use in cognitive tasks.

The four objectives shared by all cognitive scientists aim at: (1) abstract descriptions of the mental capacities manifested by the structure, content and function of various cognitive systems [abstractions], (2) systematic exploration of physical systems as alternative models of explanation [instantaneous], (3) characterization of mental processes underlying cognitive functions in living organisms [plausibility], and (4) neuro-physiological, biological mechanisms involved in cognition [realization].

Cognitive science influences: (1) Control theory by addressing teleological, purposive behavior in terms of feedback, (2) information theory by describing relations between certain physical properties and maximum rate of information processing and transfer, regardless of its meaning, (3) decision theory by optimizing social and management processes, (4) computers mechanistic conception of mind, (5) general systems theory by providing abstract principles shared by living organisms, social systems, electronic computers or other artifacts, and (6) cybernetics by studying self-adaptive and organizing systems emphasizing learning, statistical pattern recognition and modeling neural networks.

"Librarians no longer serve the books that serve the clients. Questions rule in the age of answers. Linked by its commitment to client information needs instead of knowledge of specific tools, the library profession becomes an information profession defined by its ends, rather than its means . . . tasks and opportunities push informationists from support roles to management, from middle managers to executives, from followers to leaders." (p.32)

Two of the traditional goals of librarianship remain the same: archives and access. Print remains important for specific needs, a book expands the scope of patrons' interest by raising questions that in turn ask for specific answers. The collection-driven library is replaced by question-driven service to the patron. In the future librarians should be initiators of information transfer instead of being respondents to questions asked.

"This article argues that modern conceptions of the library are informed by a particular view of knowledge grounded in early twentieth-century positivism. From this standpoint, the ideals of neutrality and access have achieved prevalence as the basis for understanding the institutionalized practices of modern libraries. This view of knowledge also serves to structure significantly the library experience of individual librarians and library users." (p.408)

"From the Foucauldian perspective, the library is seen as a dynamic site for the possibility of new knowledge as well as passive storehouse that provides access to individual facts." (Ibid.) Foucault questioned the positivistic assumptions of the self-evident objective world, substituting the term 'knowledge' by 'knowledge claims'. The latter concept, like Kuhn's paradigms, emphasizes the significance of knowledge organization in determining boundaries of knowledge. This is similar to the library's "arrangement of texts that provides the appropriate spaces in which the new knowledge claims can be located and given meaning. (p.418) "Truth is discovered not only in the library through the location of a particular text, as is implied by the positivist view of the library, but it is also made possible by their arrangements and in the 'spaces' that these arrangements make possible." (Ibid.)

This view combined with the classificatory neutrality of library organization of its records and Eco's philosophical notion of 'labyrinth' of endless relationships in which every point can be connected with any other point, can provide bases for library assistance in creating new knowledge through the endless, potential connections. "The fantasia of the library is the experience of the labyrinth, of seeking connections among texts as well as their contents." (p.420)

RADWAY, JANICE A., 1986:

This is a critique of 'eating' metaphor of reading. The author's claim that "some romance reading at least manages to help women address and even minimally transform the conditions of their daily life." (p.8)

Mass-produced art is not made by people who use them, hence it does not express initial recipients' beliefs. The producers of mass market use their financial and cultural power to manipulate people's feelings.

'Eating' metaphor is a simplification of reading habits and it characterizes the relationships between people and mass culture. The metaphor suggests consumption rather than production, weakening research into the reading habits and differentiating between 'mass' and 'serious' art.

Reader response theory maintains that ultimately readers are responsible for the interpretation of the text by referring to their past esthetic and cultural experiences. By distinguishing between "the act of book purchase and reading from the content of the books that were read, it becomes possible to see that romance reading was infinitely more complex that the traditional picture of it as the ritual consumption of patriarchal clichés dispensed by others." (p.13)

People do not 'eat' the mass culture as given, but modify it to their own needs. The author wants "to design a politics with respect to mass culture that would build upon their present creative strength as well as upon the dissatisfaction and discontent which, for so many, has nowhere to go but into the relatively 'free' real of leisure activities." (p.27)

RAFFEL, JEFFREY A., 1974:

Economic analysis focuses on choice, allocation of scarce resources and distribution of outputs. Cost-benefit analysis is an analytical examination of the costs and benefits of alternative decisions; it serves as a critique of the objectives selected by the library.

The political analysis relates to the authoritative allocation of values for a society; it affects the allocation of resources for different purposes. Political conflicts are present in all institutions, including libraries.

To economists library decision making process should be based on cost benefits, but political scientists offer no alternative approach. Both approaches ought to be recognized as different ways of thinking, requiring future research.

RAHMAN, ABDUL, 1961:

"The sublime philosophy of reference service has been drawn obliquely from the Vedas, the classics, and the mystics of India. They fill us with the supreme delight of the mystics." (p.156) "The reference librarian should combine in his personality the distinguishing characters of the four sons of Dasaratha . . . he should, like Satrugna, control the ego in him which prompts him to do least and seek most. Like Lakshmana he should do service for its own sake . . . in devotion to duty, reticence, integrity and depth he should emulate Bharata. In geniality, charm. sociability and helpfulness associated with modesty and equitableness of thoughts, word and deed Rama should be his guide." (Ibid.)

RAJAGOPALAN, T.S., 1986:

This overview of the papers collected in a tribute to Ranganathan reflects the overall importance of Ranganathan's contributions to librarianship.

Ranganathan's philosophy was twofold, aiming at the internal library needs in India and making major intellectual contributions to library science. His philosophy is summarized in the five laws of library science and his analytico-synthetic, faceted classification. His practical approach is reflected in his support for librarians professional education.

RANDALL. WILLIAM M., 1940:

The similarities between individual libraries are expressed in the purposes of librarianship to collect, preserve and interpret records to library users. In each instance the concept of the generic book is the same.

Libraries differ in their interpretation of individual books to patrons with different reading needs, and this is reflected in the arrangement of books and types of services offered in each library.

"The task of the college library . . . is to become a college library - not just a library in a college." (p.54) "The only valuable consistency is one that grows out of need, not one that grows out of practice." (Ibid.)

RANGANATHAN, S.R. 1948:

The public library is a human creation for social multi-purposes changing throughout the history from preservation and restricted use to unrestricted use by all. The changes are reflected in the five laws and their counter parts; books are (1) for use, not for preservation, (2) for all and not for chosen few, (3) every book its reader, (4) save the time, and (5) library is a growing organism.

"To get at the philosophy of public librarianship, we must

. . . begin with the nature of man himself, his involuntary urges, his makeup, his evolution and the trend of his future." (p.50) Personality of an individual plays an important role in understanding readers' needs and librarians' use of technology in providing library services. It is formed by biological, environmental and psychogenetic forces.

Philosophy and sociology of librarianship indicates a need for a formation of a new discipline 'Librametry', relevant to the given period and changing with the times to reflect changing society.

---- 1951:

In general, philosophy is a study of general principles, in specific cases it focuses on principles of particular discipline. In many disciplines knowledge itself is the object of study: mind in psychology, new relations in logic, sources and validity in epistemology and ultimate components of knowledge in ontology.

Special subjects are "recognizable in the field of knowledge, the mode of their arrangement in a helpful order and the development of the apparatus to mechanize the recalling, preservation and restoration of the preferred order . . . [constitute] Library Classification." (p.12)

Library classification is a product of social forces, especially of the impact of printing and democracy. Increased printing made broad classification of books obsolete, democracy demanded the display of the books on shelf by their thought-content, thus increasing the number of classes in classification schema.

The universe of knowledge is a dynamical continuum requiring constant revision of classification. "The only course open is to find and enumerate the fundamental categories and the possible fundamental types of relation which can develop between them. By permutating the categories and relations . . . we get a representation of the formations in the field of knowledge."

(p. 87)

---- 1963:

The library laws reflect operational philosophy of librarianship and provide the base for rules of library organization and management. They may be summarized as follow:

1: Books are for use: this self-evident law is contrasted with the focus on preservation and limited use of books in the 15th century.

2: Every reader his book: this law illustrates a shift from limited to universal education, with state obligation for financial support of libraries, proper management by librarians and staff knowledge of readers' needs.

3: Every book its reader: calls for a provision of relevant service facilitating access to the collections.

4: Save the time of the reader: it is a reader-centered approach based on efficient and effective use of library technologies.

5: The library is a growing organism: as a constantly changing institution it requires constant adjustments of its goals, planning, organization, physical facilities and personnel.

L.W. Finks (1992) pointed out that in the first edition, the second law read: 'Every person his or her book', thus indicating Ranganathan's sensitivity to women devaluation and exclusion.

RAO, K., RAMA KRISHA, 1961:

Librarianship has no philosophy that would give it an intellectual orientation. The conflict between theory and practice is rooted in the failure to develop philosophical synthesis.

Four modes of philosophical approach to librarianship are discussed.

1. Actional: librarianship involves a