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The diffusion of innovation was the major American impact on the philosophy and practice of public libraries in France. In the period of 1900-1950 it was evident in the French introduction of open access, children work, adult programs, bookmobiles, special training for librarians, author/title catalog, Dewey classification, and reference service.

MAAG, ALBERT, 1979:

In his review of David Gerard's book (1978), A. Maag cites the following philosophical questions: "What is the relationship of libraries to societies in which they exist and to societal change? Which individual groups, and classes should benefit from library services, and who should have ultimate control of Libraries?" (p. 2549)

He singled out three writers representing American librarians' responses to societal changes: (1) Margaret Egan (advocating revolutionary approach), (2) Paul Wasserman (calling for library leadership), and (3) Mary Lee Bundy (stressing revolutionary change in the role of a public library).

The reviewer concludes that social purpose of libraries in the 19th century England was a pacification of poor classes "subordinated to the political and economic ends of an all-pervasive ideology." (Ibid.)

MACHLUP, FRITZ, 1962:

Machlup defines knowledge-producing industry in terms of its economic impact on knowledge itself. He identifies three semantic definitions of knowledge: (1) knowledge as a particular kind of belief, (2) belief as a particular kind of knowledge, and (3) knowledge and belief as two different concepts.

The three interpretations are mutually exclusive, interrelating philosophy of knowledge (epistemology) with the philosophy of language into a fusion of two different meanings of knowledge: the known and the knowing: 'knowledge as that which is known' and 'knowledge as the state of knowing.'

(p. 113-114) Machlup does not clearly differentiate between information and knowledge: to inform is to convey knowledge and to be informed is to know.

He further distinguishes between types of knowledge (from intellectual to practical) and knowledge-production agencies (from creators to interpreters of knowledge).

The major components of knowledge industry include: education, research and development, communication media, information technology and service. Public libraries are considered part of education and special libraries are altogether excluded from the list as statistically insignificant.

---- 1983:

Information can be defined as: (a) the verb 'to inform', to form (the mind, character, etc.) by imparting learning or instruction, or as (b) the noun 'information' when it has two meanings: (1) as the action of informing, (telling something) or (2) as that of which one is apprised or told.

Machlup criticizes (a) the triad 'data-information-knowledge' as relating to different aspects of cognitive processes, (b) consideration of data as observation containing information, and (c) the use of various synonyms for information.

Distinction between knowledge and information is threefold; information can be (1) piecemeal, fragmented, particular, as contrasted with structured, coherent and universal knowledge; (2) it is timely, transitory, while knowledge is of enduring significance; (3) it is a flow of messages, knowledge is a stock; (4) it is acquired by being told, knowledge can be acquired by thinking, often without new information being received; (5) it is a process, a current, specific content, or an accumulated content; knowledge is a state.

Kochen feels that both information (raw) and knowledge (interpreted) are data. Occasionally, differentiation is made between the mechanistic representation of the symbols (data) and the meaning attributed to the symbols (information).

Information is sometimes linked to decisions, by removing uncertainty. Distinction is also made between information, its representation and transmission.

Something is not information unless: (1) it is about something unknown to the recipient; (2) and previously less assuredly known, or (3) it affects the stock or structure of the recipient's knowledge; (4) consists of raw data only; (5) is useful to the recipient; (6) is used in decision-making; (7) bears on the contemplated action; (8) reduces uncertainty; (9) helps to identify contextual meaning of the message; (10) excludes some alternatives; and (11) changes some beliefs.

In social sciences differentiation must be made between (a) information in metaphoric sense (no cognitive processes are involved) and traditional concept of information (mind interprets meaningful perceptions), (b) methodological and political individualism, and between (c) social information and social knowledge (with society quite different from individuals who constitute it) and system thinking.

Information can be either (a) a living phenomenon (individual transmitting and receiving signals, interpreting them, making decisions based on them), and (b) nonliving organisms (used metaphorically, since there is no information without an informant).

The notion of information used as a statistical probability of signs being selected, does not define the term 'information', it refers to signs, not to their meanings.

Knowledge implies knowing-what and knowing-how, an abstract, scientific knowledge demonstrable with certainty.

For philosophers of language information is defined in terms of semantic content of statements; for logicians it consists of statements, containing information determined by relative number of excluded alternatives. Semantic information may also be seen as reduction in uncertainty and change in belief.

Philosophy speculates about matters not yet developed by science, telling us how much of the assumed knowledge isn't knowledge. One distinguishes between philosophy of systems and system theory (science of systems), between pure, applied sciences and art, the know-how, contrasted with, but also based on, scientific know-that.

MACHLUP, FRITZ and UNA MANSFIELD, 1983a:

This is a collection of papers addressing the logical, methodological and pragmatic relationships among various on information-centered disciplines.

The book contains essays on cultural diversity, information science viewed in the perspectives of cognitive science, informatics, history of Artificial Intelligence, linguistics, library and information science, cybernetics and history of information theory.

The specific topics discussed by the contributors include; (a) cognitive, computer-oriented interpretation, (b) representational aspects of computer science (informatics), (c) dichotomies of artificial intelligence (such as between philosophy and psychology), (d) syntactic and semantic models in linguistic interpretation of information, (e) relationships between library and information science, (f) feedback and control aspects of cybernetics, and (g) entropy model in information theory.

---- 1983b:

Information is addressed by the following disciplines:

(a) Information science concentrates on practical issues based on experience. It is defined as (1) a systematic study of information, (2) a study of phenomena of interests to specific disciplines, and as (3) a study of application of new technology (e.g., library science).

(b) Library science is also practical and empirical stressing the bibliography, cataloging, indexing, reference, management, organization, acquisition and circulation.

(c) Computer science (Informatics) is an empirical field, its subject is a computer itself and its processes.

(d) Artificial Intelligence overlaps with (1) philosophy (reasoning processes), (2) linguistics (meaning of relations between objects, or symbols), and (3) psychology (perception, personality). It focuses on: (1) engineering mechanics, (2) psychological, human related, problem solving, (3) computers algorithms and processing program language, (4) cybernetics based on modeling of human mind, and (5) robotics.

(e) Cognitive science is considered a metadiscipline that includes: philosophy, psychology, empirical aspects of linguistics, interrelationships between computer, neuroscience and cybernetics, general systems theory and Shannon's communication theory.

The goal of cognitive science is to provide balance between analysis and synthesis in the representation of knowledge.

(f) Mathematical interpretation of information is based on symbolic manipulation of algebraic formula, utilizing engineering symbolic manipulation of physical systems by computer.

"Communication, one of the possible alternatives for the term information, is also a word with multiple meanings . . . We conclude that Shannon was right in calling his results a theory of communication and he should not have allowed his followers to call it information theory." (pp.49-50)

"Thus, depending on how one looks at information theory, it may be subsumed under very different categories of knowledge, ranging from practical-technological via empirical-statistical top abstract-analytical." (p.56)

MacKAY, DONALD M., 1969:

Information changes what we knew before by changing its symbolic representation. "By systematically studying what happens when something is affected by the size of an object

. . . [one] discovers the meaning of the term." (p.157)

Representation is a structure with some abstract features in common with the thing it represents; information is always about something, it justifies representational activity. The operational definition of information is formulated in terms of its effects.

Information-content is (a) an amount of information as a measure of different things (scientific or descriptive information-content), or (b) as that which determines choices (selective information-content).

Information determines form by (a) construction which includes number of degrees of freedom and weight of evidence, and by (b) selection that includes unexpectedness. Information theory addresses the issues of measuring changes in knowledge.

MACLEISH, ARCHIBALD, 1939:

In the past the choices have been between economic reforms or revolution, between the s.c. Americanism or Communism. The true threat to free culture and democracy is the threat not of any person or groups but of a condition. Only libraries, because of their objectivity, can save American democracy in crises, by making available to the reader the knowledge of its democratic culture. Librarians learned how to get the books for the readers, but not yet how to get readers for the book.

---- 1940:

In the past the government was involved only in providing opportunities for education in a form of self-improvement. Nowadays the government understands and admits affirmative interest in the education of citizens as a prerequisite of democracy. It is the library's responsibility to bring to the citizens all needed information as a part of such education, to mediate between the books and those who needs them.

---- 1940a:

A librarian is so called not for what he does, but from the place in which he does it. The two meanings of the 'book', as a physical or an intellectual object, are overlapping and confusing; yet the distinction is significant.

If a librarian is a keeper of a physical book then he is a custodian, reliable, orderly, industrious and patiently waiting for the patron; but as a keeper of an intellectual book, he is an active, affirmative advocate of learning and of the importance of a library in society. It was not necessary for the librarian in the age of learning to advocate it. However today, when learning is not universally honored, the librarian becomes the 'counsel for the situation', responsible for the inherited culture, entrusted to his care; he must represent it as its advocate, he cannot be neutral.

---- 1940b:

The library profession should be defined in terms of its unique, difficult, and essential functions that require its own discipline, techniques and ethics.

The social functions were defined at times as: (a) keeping people out of mischief by harmless recreation, (b) improving people's education, (c) assisting in developing crafts, and (d) improving employment. Current crises (war) call for preserving and defending democratic institutions by providing information about them.

H. Gleen Brown objects MacLeish's "suggestion that in saving democracy we may find the social aim justifying our professional claims [this view] is unhistorical and uncritical." (H.G.Brown, 1940) Librarians protect records of civilization not a particular form of government, and the 'education for democracy' limits the concept of education and confuses the aims of librarians with those of teachers.

---- 1972:

The essence of librarianship is defined in terms of the poet's concept of a universe composed of causes, relations and meaning, all recorded in the book.

The book is a report on the mystery of existence and the interpretation of people's experiences over time. The contemporary world does not care for meaning, it focuses on relevance. In the library, books taken as a whole imply the meaning of the universe that can be understood through reading. "Meaninglessness, like meaning, is a conclusion in the mind, a reading, an interpretation of the book content." (p.361)

MacPHERSON, HARRIED D., 1939:

The author quotes a number of librarians arguing for the sociological philosophy of cataloging. In addition to the technical objectives and rules of cataloging, the philosophy must also (a) indicate the purpose, content and relations to the other works; (b) reflects the goals and changes of its parent institution; and (c) catalogers must belief in their own work and be aware of work done in other institutions, which change with the changing times.

MAIN, LINDA, 1990:

This is an argument against the importance of research in the education of librarians. Technology is demanded by the professional needs that are overwhelmingly based on experience and practice; theory is important but not as the abstraction about the role of information in a society, its values or ethics.

Theoretical models limit the scale of professionalism and reduce the confidence in the ability to solve problems; the demand is for updating skills not the theory, hence there is no need for a concern about theoretical or philosophical issues.

"Shera's philosophy that 'regardless of library specialty, the librarian who is a scholar, irrespective of the branch of scholarship in which he may be trained, will succeed . . . has no relevance for library and information science today." (p.227)

MANGLA, P.B., 1984:

Author traces the development of research in library and information science from the last quarter of the last century till the present; beginning with Melvil Dewey library school in 1891 and maturing in the establishment of the Chicago's Graduate Library School in 1928.

Among subjects of research listed by the author were: (a) sociological approach (P. Butler, D.Waples, C.B.Joeckel, (b) library education (L.Shores, S.Ditzion, L.R.Wilson, Shera), (c) information science (Saracevic, Rees), and (d) cataloging (Cutter, Panizzi, Ranganathan).

Major contributions included: (a) in applied research: development of new methods, techniques and gadgets, (b) in cataloging and classification: subject and cataloging rules, Dewey and Colon classification systems (c) in administration: open shelves concept, management, operations research technique, (d) in education: graduate library schools, (e) in basic research: information retrieval, computer and applied mathematics, (f) in conceptual approach: understanding library and information science in terms of philosophical, psychological and linguistics factors

"The emphasis on descriptive or historical studies . . . [of] the initial stage has now shifted towards the role of libraries and information centers as important institutions in the overall chain of acquisition, organization and transfer of information . . . primarily because of two factors: (i) continuous proliferation of information, both quantitative and qualitative; and (ii) the recognition of the fact that information is an important national resource, access to which must be made possible for all who need and can benefit from its use." (p.282)

MANLEY, WILL, 1993:

The author poses a question, whether politically incorrect statement or behavior, such as e.g., sexist comments made in a discussion aiming at the enhancement of personal assertiveness, are protected by the principles of intellectual freedom. Listing a number of points and counterpoints, the author asks whether degrading or insulting comments that espouse hateful and stereotypical views should be banned from the library collection. Censors have the rights to express their views, although granting such rights creates dangerous precedents. The argument in favor of removing the book from a collection as out of date, offensive, propaganda, or a promotion of ignorance, are countered by the arguments of their historical values, illustrating contemporary social issues, supported by library responsibility not for the effects of a given book on its readers, but for providing diverse viewpoints, exposing ignorance by open access to it for examination, understanding and confrontation.

Manley does not take the stand on the controversy, but instead asks the readers for their opinions on this issue.

MANSFIELD, UNA, 1982:

Information science is contained in three groups of disciplines. (1) The processing group of data: computer science (informatics), telecommunication, robotics, library science and decision science. (2) The cognitive group of intelligent entities: includes cognitive science (cognitive elements of psychology, anthropology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, and computer science), cognitive and computational psychology (simulation of cognitive processes), artificial intelligence, linguistics and communication). (3) The systems group focusing on feedback and control: cybernetics, operations research, and aspects of systems philosophy, analysis, empirical, research and engineering.

---- 1987:

"Like the natural sciences or the social sciences, the information sciences neither have nor need a unified conceptual framework or many common fundamental postulates or axioms. Nevertheless, it is possible to group these sciences according to their general perspectives on information research." (p.50-51)

Mansfield identifies perspectives of three sciences, each listed in her 1983 essay. (a) The cognitive perspective concentrates on 'the principles by which intelligent entities interact with their environment' (p.53) It searches for a systematic theory of knowledge representation. (b) Socio-technological perspective "focuses on problems related to recorded information (knowledge), its generation, classification, processing, storage, retrieval, display, use, transfer, and accessibility." (p.60) and (c) The systems perspective "provide a theoretical base for the information sciences . . . they are general system theory - the science of relations, cybernetics - the science of controls, and information theory - the science of transmissions of information." (p.66)

MARCO, GUY A., 1966:

Philosophy of librarianship is defined in terms of its objectives: what is planned to be accomplished rather than as means and methods of accomplishing them; the 'why-what' rather than 'what is the purpose, what are the ideals of librarianship'. Technical questions can be answered specifically and are verifiable; philosophical questions are metaphysical, ethical and esthetic.

Library philosophy is out of tune with national ideals by not following the principle of innocent before proven guilty. For example some books are deselected because of their potential negative impact on the society.

Marco identifies two basic approaches to philosophy of librarianship: (a) Butler's consideration of a library as an agent of society and (b) Broadfield's focus on a library as an agent of an individual. Butler is also concerned with an individual but within an ethical framework of community, he would approve some censorship in interest of societal harmony, Broadfield would allow none.

This distinction sets a social and humanistic polarity. We can choose one or the other approach but cannot have both together, they cancel each other out. (A comparison to a metaphor of white and red wine, each appreciated separately, but of no value when mixed).

Thus, the library purpose may be defined differently.

(a) Butler sees archives preserving history of civilization as a major function, stressing the importance of history of bibliography and library as an instrument of society. (b) To Broadfield a library is a servant of an individual, protecting his freedom of thought with no boundaries. Individual not a society or library is a sole judge of the value of reading material. (c) Jewett sees library philosophy as a part of specific philosophy of democracy. (d) Danton considers philosophy of librarianship as an expression of the profession's "aims, functions, purpose and meaning . . . a set of clear objectives constitutes the essence of a philosophy." (p.8)

MARCHANT, MAURICE P., 1975:

"The concepts of economic theory, economic system, and economic model are discussed as potentially applicable to libraries. Two types of such models are developed from data drawn from university libraries. One predicts professional staff size from two variables: collection size and collection decentralization. The other identifies a set of library inputs composed of professional staff size and subprofessional staff size, and annual acquisitions rate as a consistently good predicator of library expenditures and a stable measure of library input." (p.449)

MARSHALL, PETER, 1976:

The library as a source of information, although important, is not a central purpose of all libraries. The focus on information restricts knowledge to facts, yet in non-scientific, spiritual matters truth may not be so obvious, requiring discriminating judgment, which is sometimes in conflict with intellectual freedom

The concept of "value-free fits well with the ideas of information and intellectual freedom . . . [but] to be value-free is to deny any absolute values - itself a value judgment - while creating a new value by setting a premium on being value-free." (p.231) "If there are no values, then why read?" (Ibid.)

The author accuses libraries of insisting to give people what they do not want, replacing traditional moral values by meaningless facts of information.

MARTIN, LAURA K., 1964:

A comprehensive statement on library philosophy is important as an intellectually stimulating exercise in critical thinking, it has no effect upon recruitment of librarians. The best philosophy for a professional staff is a simply worded blue print of daily tasks, different for each library.

MARTIN, LOWELL, 1935:

The misconceptions about library science include the notion of library science as a set of rules, statistics or a belief that it constructs a pattern of theory based on scientific facts of today. Its nature is in its scientific, experimental, inductive method and attitudes of objectivity.

The objectivity differs between natural and social sciences: the former is independent of social conditions, the latter is based on human conditions.

---- 1937:

As a part of social institution, the library transmits cultural heritage with 'social control'. It is 'an expression of its age': educating people for democracy and providing recreation for educated people; it is the agency of a political system founded upon the assumption that enlightened citizens are able to govern themselves. As a product and integrated part of social process, library mission changes with society's needs and values. Major library objective is to provide environment for freedom of opportunities for self-fulfillment.

"The library, with its freedom from restrictive behavior patterns and autonomous formalism, and in its books reflecting the whole play of living, is favorably equipped to assist the realization of personality and the encouragement of self-expression." (p.562)

---- 1948:

"The function of the American public library is to mediate between seekers for knowledge and the recorded materials which contain and promote knowledge." (p.1) Its central mission is to offers adults educational services, by providing (a) information on current issues, (b) material of local interest, and (c) specialized resources.

"In democracy the objectives of educational institutions are limited by the values which the people adopt." (p.12) The objectives of a public library as a community institution, are by necessity selective, relevant to that community.

---- 1968:

In changing technology a distinction is made between the computer uses for (a) bibliographic control, (b) document reproduction and distribution, and (c) information retrieval. The knowledge explosion refers to a utilitarian knowledge, the technical focus is on increased productivity.

Social changes lead toward specialization based on human intellectual power as the major resources. Librarians will have to shift from a focus on resources to people they serve. "In the past librarian's question has been - how can I get the learner to the library? The future question will take the form - how can resources be projected to the learner? " (p.203)

---- 1979:

Although libraries are conditioned by their society, they do not always follow or reflect social changes, they are not "a mirror image of its milieu." (p.269)

Public libraries serve only minority of the population leading to accusation of elitism. In the larger social context, society "sets limits which the agency cannot escape, but within these limits the library takes on a character of its own, responding to some parts of the milieu but not to others." (p.271)

Demographic changes in this country are characterized by population growth and aging, changing roles of women and family, urban concentration and dispersion, the problems of minority and poverty, class structure and changing nature of social research.

In the past libraries did not changed significantly, intensifying rather than diversifying their functions. Today the focus is on internal changes to improve the services to the patrons. "The forces that seem destined to change the library are more technological than social, with modifications in structure and mechanics more likely than in social purpose and wider clientele." (p.293)

MARTIN, WILLIAM J., 1987:

Most of the library knowledge is based on shared experience and practice. Information science "represents a conscious attempt to introduce academic rigor and standardized research methodologies into an area which evolved on a largely ad hoc and pragmatic basis." (p.130)

The author sees the changes in information profession leading to the deprofessionalization of information work, by ceasing to be a purview of a small group of people sharing the same value system.

MARVIN, CAROLYN, 1987:

It is believed that history shifted its focus from exchange of things to the exchange of knowledge. Information age was introduced by economic analysts describing information as the increased productivity of brain work and as a shift of capital and labor from manufacturing to services.

However information quantity is not a measure of meaning; the structural specificity of the economics of information was posed by economist Machlup and since then information age is not considered as a hypothesis but as an established fact of life.

For Porat information is uniform, mechanical in structure, economically quantifiable, with its meaning of no interest to the economists. Yet information does not exist until it has meaning, which is established only in social relationships with cultural reference and value.

Machlup distinguishes between information as 'that which is known', to which price is assigned, and information as 'state of knowing', in someone state of mind. However, information cannot be conceptually framed as a distinct and independent economic category, since no economic activity could take place without suitable information.

Information can be shared or augmented rather than used up, hence if consumption is not entering calculation of information value, the conventional notion of price and cost will be misleading indices of its economic operations and effects.

M.Douglas does not classify information as a separate economic sector, but considers all goods as a part of a more fundamental cultural information system where people seek to bring the variety of meanings that goods express under their control in consumption. Goods are the information system.

In human history information was perceived as part of multiple levels relationships among people. What seems to change from time to time is not the total contribution of information to economic activity, but the forms of energy in which information is captured and exchanged, and the nature of its social classification. The information age is a buzzword, not a description of real phenomena.

MASON, ELLSWORTH, 1975:

The social disintegration that results in indecision is analyzed in terms of a cyclical theory of history.

The entire course of human societies is a graduate shift of authority from the few to the many. It starts with local oligarchy, followed by autocracy of plebeian class, with democracy emerging in the third stage. However, soon individual freewill becomes unguided by values, and self-interest at the expense of general interest thus renewing the chaos.

Chaos is a basic condition of the world. Managing multiplicity of people is a central problem of administration in organizations. Decisions are required in areas where personal expertise is lacking and authority is viewed as a destructive force.

MASON, MARILYN GLEN, 1985:

Plato objected to writing as a new technology which offers information without discourse. Today computer technology is considered in economic or technological terms instead of addressing the issue of related library purpose and value.

The basic purpose of a public library in USA always was to support democracy through public access to information. Its roles are: (1) passive, to "provide the materials, the indexes, the finding mechanisms and control tools . . . for individual to find a book or research an issue." (p.138), (2) active, to provide "answers to questions, not just access to materials containing these answers." (Ibid.), and (3) interactive database search.

"Free access to information is a cornerstone of the library ethics . . . we have a professional and ethical obligation to ask for the resources we need to provide adequate library service to the community we serve." (p.139)

MASON, RICHARD O., 1987:

Information is kinetic (in motion, stimulating the receiver) or potential (at rest, waiting to be released). The task of placing a value on information is to determine both its actual and potential use value. Potential value is an actual value multiplied by probability of being used. Information should be collected and provided anytime since its potential value is greater than its cost of provision.

Value doesn't exist in abstraction, but is realized through means-end process. Four categories of value are: (1) economic (for possessing adequate means), related to efficiency, effectiveness, and responsiveness, (2) scientific (possessing knowledge and understanding relations between means and ends), understanding for its own sake, (3) political (for dealing with cooperation or conflict among involved parties); it increases the power of information recipient, and (4) Esthetic (for creating new or different end).

Relevance is a key factor affecting value and cost of information. It involved information wanted, needed and provided and is further evaluated as not misinterpreted, timely, reliable, valid, adequate and wide ranging.

MASON, ROBERT M., 1985:

Computer learning consists of the ability to recognize a problem that it has solved before, and the capability to select relevant facts. Human knowledge includes in addition to facts also meaning and significance of these facts. Humans can also use common sense (in computers known as nonstandard logic) to change a previous conclusion in light of additional information.

The greatest interest next few years in artificial intelligence will be in (a) expert systems: a computer program that when presented with series of facts, follows a set of rules and reaches conclusions similar to human expertise. It consists of: (1) a database (facts), (2) a knowledge base (e.g., set of rules for comparison and interpretation) and (3) an inference engine, applying the knowledge to act on the situation-specific facts that are fed into a machine. (b) Natural language interface which permits human operators to communicate with computer using human-like language. (c) Visual recognition is of special interest to military and robotic designers.

In the libraries the first computer services were passive (to use static data sources such as book), then database services improved efficiency, in future with information stored in a 'knowledge base' we may be able to anticipate users' interest, thus offering not only interactive but also proactive services

MASSIE, JOSEPH L., 1987:

The concept of management developed in four stages as: (1) administration of people, (2) development of managerial tools and (3) application of economics (Adam Smith's division of labor) leading to (4) Industrial Revolution moving production from home to factory, separated from capital and distinguished between ownership and management, new technology of production, and social reforms aiming at improvement of working conditions.

Management is defined as: (1) a process of groups' accomplishment of common goals through economic resource, and (2) a system of authority. It addresses psychological needs of the client and employee and develops political acceptability.

Management performs the following functions: (1) decision making, (2) determination of the structure of jobs, (3) staffing, (4) planning, (5) controlling, and (6) leadership. Its roles are: (a) informative, (b) entrepreneurial, and (c) interpersonal.

MATTESSICH, Richard, 1982:

"Systems thinking is first and foremost a point of view and a methodology arising out of that view." (p.384)

Systems approach distinguishes between (a) systems philosophy (ontology, epistemology and methodology), (b) system analysis (mathematical theories and systems models), (c) empirical systems research (in behavior, laws and simulation of systems), and (d) systems engineering (artificial systems).

Major contributions include: (a) Bertelanffy's General Systems Theory clarifying and generalizing the organizational systems in society, (b) Bogdanov's concern with organizing and disorganizing systems, their differentiations, growth, duplication, and interdependencies with environment, (c) Ackoff's focus on pragmatic and methodological research, (d) Churchman's focus on the existence of a hierarchy in the system and reconciliations between the goals of super- and sub-systems, interrelating ethics of individual behavior with that of the whole system, (e) Simin's development of scientific basis for system's design and testing, postulating that a person "as a behavioral system, is structured simply, and that his apparent complexity stems from the complexity of his environment." (p.390)

---- 1993:

This essay consists of three sections. The first section discusses the conceptualization of information and knowledge. Topics include similarities and differences between information and energy, their dual character, the meaning of generic, syntactical and semantic information and the distinctions between data, information and knowledge in the process of communication.

The second part of the essay concentrate on the economic of information, knowledge and education, by distinguishing between 'information economics' (as an extension of Decision Theory, Team Theory, Market and Agency Theory) and 'the economics of knowledge and education' (empirical and descriptive nature of the production and distribution of knowledge, the approach pioneered by Machlup).

The final section deals with least researched, issues of the depreciation of information and knowledge, both considered as commodities that in principle can be written off, if their value decline, either in a physical sense (acidity of paper) or as the obsolescence of the content).

MATTHEWS, D.A., 1969:

In response to Foskett's essay on intellectual and social changes in library service, author questions the quality of the librarian's insight into the works of art and humanities. Insight is a rare ability. The author prefers to talk about education of librarians in value judgment through the exercise of discrimination on writings of all kinds. He doubts that it is possible to have "the librarian as some sort of cultural guru in every suburb." (p.93)

MATHEWS, VIRGINIA H., 1981:

Mathews distinguishes between private and public awareness in perception, consciousness, cognizance, alertness and appreciation.

Private awareness includes a sense of mission, "a strong belief in the social, economic and personal utility of reading, of access to information and to help in utilizing it; sensitivity to the hidden needs of people, to their eroded, atrophied or never fully developed sense of competence, identity and self-confidence." (p.42)

Public awareness consists of "real understanding of why reading skills, a high level of literacy, continue to be essential leadership equipment in a society in which precision, and ability to analyze, interpret and extrapolate count [is directed] toward competence and success." (p.43)

Librarians ought to avoid the 'displacive fallacy', the notion that new technology will replace the old, and should adapt to changing roles from motivator to provider and listener.

"Librarians are in the business of bridging the gap between information and its application, of helping people to make the leap from conviction to action, from what they are to what they want to become." (p.44)

MAYER, HENRY, 1974:

"Public policy is concerned with whatever governments choose to do or not to do [it] includes the study of the major barriers and obstacles to the spread and use of information. If we treat information as one more resource necessary for action, then the study of its distribution, accessibility, forms and modes, typical usages and non-usages can be seen as part of the study of public policy." (pp.393-4)

Librarians in their role of the communicators of information to the public at large must become more active and militant in the field of public policy.

McCLELLAN, A.W., 1961:

A distinction is made between (a) the ends of librarianship (as a profession), (b) the ends of individual public library service (each has its own interpretation of its functions), and (c) librarians' own personal ends and values (what is good for us may not be good for others).

"The ends of librarianship are the means by which other means are served . . . the library exists for the public good but in what that good consists is almost everybody's guess."

(pp. 235-6)

New class division appears between cultured educated patrons, and mass-pressure anti-culture class. Hence, the mission of a public library is to "serve the library as a biblio-power house, a technical invention significant for humanity as any other; ensure universal accessibility to all records' knowledge and experience, thus preserving them again the effects of conformism and exploitation; and accept responsibility for ensuring classless society in the cultural sense." (p.238)

McCOLVIN, L.R., 1949:

The author stresses function rather than purpose in philosophy of librarianship, which is not to improve patrons' personality, but to provide him with the opportunities for deciding for himself what he considers good.

"The man who puts his religion, his politics before his responsibilities as a librarian, who does not realize that the librarian as librarian can have no religion, no politics, can never be anything but a bad librarian, false to his faith as librarian, neglectful of his true responsibilities. " (p.82)

Four conditions must be achieved by the library: (1) it must be impartial, serving no ulterior objectives, (2) it must be open, accessible and available to all, (3) it must be good to do its job properly as an objective resource of information, and (4) it must encourage people to use its resources and services.

McCONNELL, J. CHRISTOPHER, 1992:

"Librarians lack a clear and philosophically useful definition of librarianship." (p.53) "To define librarianship in a useful way we must first provide a context . . . Aristotle's discussion of the first philosophy and Ortega y Gasset's examination of the social necessity of librarianship offer metaphysically useful observations and arguments with which to approach a definition of librarianship." (Ibid.)

In Aristotle's terms librarian qua librarian "is a quality or an attribute predicated to a more primary substance . . . librarianship does not acquire its fullest meaning until it extends beyond itself, ultimately to that upon which it depends as described by whichever philosophy is found to be most convincing." (pp. 56-57)

Ortega refers to the librarian mission as a choice of an act by an individual, which collectively becomes a professional mission of a necessary action. "What we call librarianship began as a creative act on the part of individuals . . . it was a personal mission, something individual thought it was necessary to do. But gradually it evolved into a professional mission, a duty, an office, something which society viewed as a necessity." (p.59) Social necessities change with time; initially it was a book preserving the wisdom of the ages with a librarian as its keeper.

McCORISON, MARCUS A., 1984:

Bibliographers and historians are closely related professions. "The historian is concerned with the content and the meaning of the evidence, the bibliographer takes the same evidence and looks at it as a vehicle bearing the text, and attempts to interpret how the whole effects the reader's perception of content and meaning. Historians desire an annotated bibliography, that leads them to sources of information, caring little about the physical nature of the source. The bibliographer works toward a physical description of the source, as well as an account of the content [There is a danger] of confusing a descriptive bibliography, in which each like object is compared and each may be treated as a separate entity, with catalogue of collection in which the bibliographer may not have the opportunity to assemble evidence about an example from more than one source - the one at hand. Whatever the situation may be, the bibliographer's task always is to explain in ways appropriate to a printed object some things that will make plain to another inquirer the significance of a particular piece of thought and work. " (p.134)

McCRIMMON, BARBARA, 1975:

In the preface to her compilation, McCrimmon divided the approaches to the philosophy of librarianship into three periods, all expressing basically the same message but each with its own distinctive viewpoint.

(a) Nineteenth century contribution focused on library function as an extension of public education, (Dewey, Dana, Foss) with librarians serving as agents of a book (Bostwick, Putnay, Richardson)

(b) In 1930-1940 the interest was in sociological research, especially research on reading (Danton, Martin, Goldhor), bibliographies and on the content of the book as it affects individual readers' character and society's culture (Sayers, Haines, Butler, Powell).

(c) In 1960s new philosophical approach emerged. Shera concentrated on impact of new technology on libraries, Harlow stressed scientific factors in the philosophy of librarianship; Nitecki developed philosophical analyzes and Marco discussed a humanistic view. Shores and MacLeish presented an idealistic interpretation of graphic expression of knowledge.

Emerging focus in the philosophy of librarianship included: (a) library objectives, purposes and use; (b) aims and obligations of librarianship, (c) professional consciousness, which in turn leads to (d) theoretical foundations divided into three major themes: (1) faith in democracy, (2) appreciation of the power of education, and (3) dedication to general welfare.

The theoretical foundations for librarianship are formulated either as: (1) provision of useful reading material, either informational or recreational, especially in a public library, or (2) a support of personal development of an individual patron through reading. In both cases it is a sociological focus with use of scientific method, conditioned by cultural, political and economic factors.

---- 1994:

The focus of this essay is on the background to the philosophy of librarianship. The historical pattern of library adjustment to social environment is evident in library awareness of its social role, and recent focus on readers' intellectual enrichment through reading.

The library functions evolved from the responsibility for bookkeeping and preservation, through the bibliographic organizing of library collections and administrative management of printed material, to the service orientation and dedication to intellectual freedom.

McCrimmon discusses the philosophy of librarianship in United States in terms of the two major philosophical approaches of Plato and Aristotle.

Plato's idealism of universal concepts and ethical value is reflected in the library viewed as a depository of intellectual aspects of the civilization, and librarianship motivated by the love of books (Butler, Haines, Powell, Richardson and Sayers).

The Aristotelean approach was introduced by the Chicago's Graduate Library School focusing on sociological research and methodology (Shera, Shores).

The dialogue between these two approaches is illustrated by the debate between the idealism and pragmatism of librarianship. Ortega wanted librarians to be controllers of book production, Kaplan saw the similarities between philosophy and librarianship, considering both as metasciences, Wright draws sharp distinction between humanistic character of librarianship and the materialism of science. Nitecki considered library and information science as a metalibrarianship, based on a metaphorical communication model of interaction between a generic book, its content and its interpretation by the receiver, analyzed on the physiological, psychological and philosophical levels.

Other contributions to the philosophy of librarianship included the condemnation of censorship (ALA Bill of Rights), stress on primacy of individual (Broadfield) and a variety of developments in subjects such as classification (Ranganathan), library administration (Naude, Durie, Panizzi, Putnam) professionalism (Dewey), research in and education for librarianship (Foskett, Orr, Botasso) and studies in different types of libraries.

McCRUM, BLANCHE PRICHARD, 1946:

Following Francis Bacon's concept of idols, McCrum identified three idols of librarianship. (1) Idols of the professional librarian's effort to master his machine, (2) low self esteem as 'mere librarians', and (3) idol of bureaucracy based on the rigidity, formality and precedents.

Idol breaking involves changing one's attitude toward the idols, better definition of library performance and improved library education.

McGARRY, KELVIN, J., 1975:

This is a discussion of librarianship in the context of its society's communication system. Aristotle's model of communication is based on the relationships between Speaker - Speech - Audience. Shannon and Weaver model of tele-communication translates 'speaker' into 'source', 'speech' into 'signal' and 'audience' into 'destination' adding 'transmitter' and 'receiver'. Berlo simplified this model by reducing the relationships to Source - Message - Channel - Receiver.

Information is defined as a content that reduces uncertainty or number of possibilities. (1) In Shannon information theory it is a 'signal transmission' measuring channel capacity and uncertainty of choice; (2) in social sciences information is a communication of meaning; (3) in biological sciences it is a content that helps to organize the structure of environment.

The public library is a cybernetic system reacting to the changes in the environment. The librarian is an active partner in the inquiry process. Entropy is represented by unsorted books, reduced by arranging and classifying them. The major problem in communication system is a noise (physical or semantic).

The Epistemological question, 'man puts the code into a machine, who puts the code into man?' is answered by different philosophical interpretations of the code. The following philosophers and philosophical schools are discussed: (a) Plato: (forms-experience as an imperfect representation of an ideal world), (b) Locke: (Mind as tabula rasa), (c) Polanyi: (distinction between public (written) knowing and private, (in our mind) understanding), (d) Popper: (Three interdependent worlds), (e) Snow's concept of two cultures: humanities and technology), (f) physiological view: (brain processes sensory input as symbols), (g) linguistic view: sign and symbols interact with the environment in language, serving as a frame of reference to the mind about experiences, (h) sociological view: reality is a social construct communicated by use of symbols, read differently, accordingly to the roles and functions performed in the society, (i) modern view: man imposes order upon reality, which is a social construct. Brain needs constant sensory input (information) to select and encode it. What we see is determined by the culture; a social consensus is accomplished through communication.

The library contributes to the common pool of communication by performing a role of a link, by developing knowledge about knowledge. It includes: (a) philosophically-epistemological minimum (patron has some knowledge and expects the library system to help him in getting more knowledge), and (b) sociologically the patron made some choices and satisfies his needs by matching them with the image of someone who can help him.

The library depends (a) on technology (to save time and costs), (b) on behavioral sciences (to understand human behavior) and (c) on the appreciation of critical reading (in order to contribute to the patron's understanding).

Ethics of information involves (a) determination of how much information to release, (b) responsibility of government to educate citizens of their rights, (c) editing of information by media, and (d) criteria used for selecting information.

---- 1981:

The book discusses various relationships between new technology and communication, which create new forms of society.

Wisdom is defined as intellectual perfection, a capacity of knowing and judging rightly. Knowledge refers to the recorded human knowledge.

Librarians have to distinguish between different aspects of knowledge in classifying it. 'To know' may imply knowledge of (a) theoretical causes and principles, (b) a skill, (c) facts, (d) state of mind or (e) set of attitudes.

Overall, there are two opposing views about information. (a) It exists in the structure of material world independent of human perception, and (b) in a nonhuman world something can only become information when acted upon by the concept system of the knower. Both theories satisfy basic psychological needs. Man is a pattern-forming, he classifies his experiences, to find relationships, to generalize and to abstract from these experiences. There is no consensus when information ends and knowledge began; both are embodied in language and involve a conceptual mechanism that is imposed on data.

Information has to be structured and represented in some way (only electric light is pure information, every other medium has another medium inside it). Need is a basic concept in information, it related to the motivation and imply lack of something. Perception can be defined as the organism's maintenance of contact with its environment. Memory is essential for survival. The act of remembering is the interpretive and imaginative reconstruction based on experiences, it appears in a form of an image or language. Mind is constantly trying to find relations between things it experiences, with a Gestalt compulsion to arrange these experiences into patterns.

There is a parallel between perception, memory, knowing and library. Information is taken into system, (library or brain), it is held there in a classified or schematized form, available on request. Limited capacity and use of brain and library selection requires relevance, selectivity and filter that are of fundamental importance in learning and in obeying the principle of economy both in a brain and in a library.

Librarians must be aware of the interrelationships between the social structure of the discipline and information flow. Recorded information can be analyzed as a structure of related documents, manifested by citations, that vouch for the authority and relevance of the statements and acknowledge the achievements of writers' predecessors.

---- 1983

There is a mismatch in library schools curricula between the phenomena studied and the tools used. It is created by a lack of a consensus on the definition of information, ranging from the notions that (a) information is an element in a choice (G.Miller), (b) a change itself (McKay), or (c) that which transforms structure (Belkin). Definitions of information reflect epistemological standpoints in accordance with one's world view or ideology. (Welisch). On one extreme, information is a part of material world existing independently of us, on another extreme, something becomes information only when acted upon by the concept system of the knower, itself a product of the needs, values and state of knowledge of the community.

There is a close relation between a structure and its supporting environment as evidenced in entropy (without continued input any system will decay).

"Information is now seen by many as a 'commodity' by analogy with the classic resources of land, labour and capital. However, unlike these resources, information is not depleted by wider sharing; indeed the 'commodity' is enlarged and enhanced by commentary and criticism. More fundamental still, information determines how we view and use other resources, and, ultimately, shapes our conception of the objective world. The study of society's information systems is more complex than information science has so far taken it to be." (p.104)

There is a difference between subject knowledge (interpretative and prescriptive) and the bibliographical knowledge (descriptive). McGarry compares the function of a subject specialist to that of a street map of London showing relations between details and the bibliographical system similar to underground map providing simplified relations between distances.

The traditional core, the basic knowledge that distinguishes a librarian from other professionals has been, according to Foskett, cataloging, classification, bibliography and management, while Needham considers people as a core. However, recent technological changes replaced a need to teach detailed author-title cataloging, stressing instead an online databases and indexing techniques.

Important is a balance between teaching social context of librarianship and sociology proper, or psycho-linguistic basis of indexing and the extreme of teaching structuralism.

"Information transfer and storage technology has advanced but indexing techniques have not." (p.116) "The humanistic and cultural problems of the new technology have yet to be tackled." (Ibid.)

---- 1987a:

Information depends on the processes that produce it; this creates the difficulty of defining it; only some of the aspects of information can be studied independently of these processes.

"The anchorage for an information science course (as distinct from librarianship) is based on the premise that information can best be understood in the context of specific system. Since librarianship is a system . . . a subset of information science." (p.156)

The existence of information or its science as an objective reality with its own unique domain is still debatable. "Information science is the study of information-producing processes in any information system in which they may occur

. . . while information science may in principle be concerned with the analysis of pure process, it depends primarily on the methodologies for studying phenomena in specific disciplines." (Ibid.)

---- 1987b:

Three kinds of the definition of culture are suggested: (a) humanistic: culture is a pursuit of perfection by knowing all relevant recorded information, (b) cultural anthropological: culture is a particular way of viewing the world, and (c) ethical interpretation of culture as a hierarchy of superiority between cultures.

Both librarian and educator select what shall be transmitted to next generation. But what is better? How to address a need for a balance between different cultural needs and at the same time encourage dynamic pluralism?

According to Skinnerian behaviorism information is independent of cultural variables, an individual is a discrete entity, a unit of production and consumption, a social datum that can be easily computable. This view is not wrong, it is incomplete. Human activities consist of creating and transforming symbols, human meaning is expressed by different symbolic forms such as poetry, or mathematics, each has its own validation, each is not reducible to other forms, and each has its expression in some institutional organization.

The core of both librarianship and information science is the storage and retrieval of information; in both cases words are the carriers, loaded with emotions and attitudes. However, preoccupation with the hardware of information retrieval and storage weakened critical and judgmental part of library education.

McGRATH, WILLIAM C., 1985:

Reflecting on the philosophical meaning of the library collection, the author states that: "without a collection a library is as nothing; it does not exist." (p.242) "The emphasis has shifted to access and that, because of technological advances, good and direct service will be possible and librarians no longer will try to build and maintain large self-sufficient collection. Whether a library or indeed librarianship can function without large collection, however, is not at issue here. Instead, given the basic reality of collections, how can we reconcile them with use and how can we characterize them in a way that the insights obtained would improve the availability, accessibility and ultimately, user satisfaction?" (Ibid.)

---- 1994:

Using the metaphor of Copernican theory as an example, the author discusses the possibility of developing a unified theory of librarianship, by following the explanatory and predictive methodology of modern astronomy.

"In every area -- acquisition, storage, preservation, classification of knowledge, collections, reference work and so on, there is something that varies and is dependent on something else, so that we should be interested in building theories that would enable us to explain and predict the activities of each area." (p.6)

The proposed unified theory of librarianship is based on the integrated system of measurable relationships, regularities and laws between the contribution of publishing, selection practices and acquisition policies, which together with other variables have impact on storage, preservation and classification of collection, thus creating necessary conditions for library circulation.

McHALE, JOHN, 1976:

"It is important to distinguish the difference between information and knowledge. At the simplest, knowledge is ordered information, and there are many levels of such ordering. [Quoting Rudy Bretz] "Information has far less structure than knowledge; much information in fact consists of isolated and unrelated facts, In general, unrelated information can be filed in a human memory only when it has become associated with some prior structure of understanding and has become part of a person's knowledge." (p.4)

McINNIS, RAYMOND G., 1982:

The author provides a structuralist approach to the teaching of library research based on a metaphorical model. The model is based on Pepper's contextual viewpoint.

"Reference librarian works with abstract material called information . . . information consists of ideas . . . created abstractly, contained in physical objects . . . librarianship must be metaphysical rather than scientific (Wright), [and] theoretical framework for librarianship can be based on 'metaphysical models' (Nitecki)." (pp. 54-55)

The author interprets 'bibliographic citation as a symbol for a concept, function as a metaphor for the cognitive content of a specific publication. That is, the relationship between the cited document and the concept it symbolizes is metaphoric." (p.56)

---- 1984:

This is a discussion of the concept of mental, cognitive maps defined as images constructed in our minds to help understand the formats, conventions, processes and formulations of concepts.

McKENNY, MARY and EDITH ERICSON, 1972:

The authors described the 'Creative Experience', a project in a small college library, aimed at participatory democracy, and introduction of 'radical' changes in library operations such as the browsing room dedicated to 'alternative' publications, extended library hours, expanded community service, and revision of LC subject headings.

The experiment failed, in part because of betrayal by radicals, by liberals and by the power structure. "From our point of view," the authors maintained, "radical means making real change, at the heart of things, or wanting to make that change; liberal means being inherently ambivalent about change: i.e., the difference between a liberal and a reactionary is the degree to which the former masks his/her desire to maintain the status quo." (p.96)

The disappointed and bitter, the authors concluded "that the concept of 'intellectual freedom' excuses a 'neutrality' which really supports the Establishment." (p.106)

McMAHON, A.M. and J.TYDEMAN, 1978:

"Library is a system for assembling published materials, developing information services and disseminating information for use by client . . . [Library is] open to environmental influences and includes human interaction in the context of carrying out defined tasks." (p. 905)

Within the system's framework one can understand the nature of library functioning in terms of layers of specificity, by retaining at any time the totality of the library overall mission to deliver information to its patrons.

The insight offered by systems analysis of librarianship is threefold: (1) "Basic mechanism between the primary objectives which are present in any systemic representation of a library determines its basic character; (2) the interaction among the activities demonstrates the function of the library as a system, and (3) the holistic view allows the library to be appreciated as totality and to be compared with reality on this basis," (p.915)

McMULLEN, HAYNES, 1957:

This is a discussion of philosophy of librarianship in terms of its 'backgrounds', i.e., library research, history, bibliography, and relations to society. The following writers on the philosophy of librarianship are cited: (1) Ranganathan (Five laws), (2) Broadfield (focus on individual), (3) Irwin (librarianship as an applied bibliography), (4) Butler (preservation of scholarship), (4) Madden (the role of social preservation of individualism), (5) Garceau (library in political process), (6) McColvin (comparative librarianship), (7) Wilson and Tauber (academic libraries).

The author concludes that philosophy of librarianship can be defined as an expanded research on issues mentioned above, in terms of the validity of data and reasoned conclusions.

MEIJER, J.G., 1991:

The essay focuses on the role of presuppositions in the classification of knowledge in library science. "Prescientific presuppositions arise from the reality view that is influenced by genetic, social, person-structural and religious/ideological factors. Scientific presuppositions consists of metaphysical (ontological and epistemological) premises and paradigms [they] function as points of departure in scientific work [and should be] as far as possible founded metaphysically." (p.217)

MELODY, WILLIAM H., 1986:

"All societies always have been information societies." (p.223) "The social, cultural, political and economic institutions in any society are defined in terms of characteristics of the shared information within and among those institutions." (Ibid.)

Societies differ by kinds of information needed and different technologies used. Market for information determines the amount of information provided by information industry in two ways: (1) available technology increases the amount of information available, (2) many kinds of information, unused before, are now introduced because of their marketability.

"The information acquires value because the decision-making systems in society are being structured so as to depend upon highly-specialised information delivered over complex, high-technology networks. As the dependence become greater, the economic value of the information becomes greater because the opportunity cost for following any alternative path becomes greater." (p.225)

The author compares the roles of the old monks to guard and control the information access with the modern electronic monks' role of not only controlling the access to information but also interpreting information in its context. "The emphasis will shift away from the technology to the information only after society has trained a cadre of new electronic monks who can evaluate user need, demonstrate how they can be best met, and guide the development of the most useful information sources." (p.230)

MENOU, M., 1969:

Informatics was created not by the rapid increase in human knowledge but by a rapid change in the ratio between human mental structure and the scope of challenges created by available knowledge. The long development of human race created emotional and fear barriers for better understanding of science. Knowledge transfer shifts presently from the autoconsumption for individual own survival to a mass production of information as a commodity.

Information exists independently of any documentary translation, yet it is difficult to be separated from its medium. The author distinguishes between three basic kinds of information: (1) primary (raw material or data pertaining to a given viewpoint), (2) secondary information (information about information) and (3) tertiary information (a by-product of the primary information).

Transfer of knowledge is an " operations performed to collect, describe, analyze and synthesize, store, memorize, retrieve and disseminate information under their various forms (primary, secondary, tertiary) by means of available technique." (pp.60-61)

Transfer of knowledge system is the "apparatus which carry out with fixed methods and instruments, a set of fixed procedures corresponding to the main functions of the transfer of knowledge, if not the whole, for a given object or field. Each function (archives, documentation, information) may dispose of a system or subsystem which would be its own." (p.63)

MENZEL, JOHN PAUL, 1972:

The author applied Barfield's epistemological approach to the study of the nature of library science. He questions the empirical approach, proposing instead a transcendental methodology.

Descartes' matter-mind duality is the basis for the contemporary mechanical interpretations in natural sciences and for the approaches in librarianship. It is illustrated by Shera's concept of 'management of knowledge' utilizing a mechanical methodology of the positivistic philosophy.

Barfield opposes materialistic orientation by relying on myth and metaphor that would interrelate poetry, science and religion. "In its origin language is mythic, and for archaic thought knowledge is immediate and external. It is through the application of metaphor that consciousness is expanded and knowledge is internalized. Intellectual consciousness . . . is essentially a dead consciousness. It is epitomized in modern times by the empirical philosophies. Romanticism emerged as an attempt, through imagination, to do consciously what the ancient or pre-logical mind did unconsciously. This is the basis for Barfield's philosophy." (p. 22)

Barfield focuses on the transcendental dimension of philosophy which basically is an intuitive method of knowing, as contrasted with the empirical approach that maintains that the knowledge is obtained from the interpretation of facts of nature only.

Menzel criticizes Goldhor for his, similar to Popper's scientific approach to history, illustrating a positivistic misconstruction of historical approach by using empirical methodology of observable, verifiable and logically accessible facts and events. He also agrees with Shera's notion that librarianship must be based on epistemological analysis. "However, Shera actually fails to support his [own] position because he does not offer anything, which is really new, to be studied. As a matter of fact, his support for a librarianship that is concerned with the 'management of knowledge' betrays the poverty of his position and a weakness in the field of library science as a whole." (p.43).

"Descartes' Cogito ergo sum was a forthright affirmation that the beginning of all inquiry is epistemology and epistemology is primarily philosophical. Therefore . . . the primary task of library science is purely philosophical." (p.45)

MERIKANGAS, ROBERT J., 1987:

The author describes a model based on a metaphor of mapmaking, i.e., compiling various lists, and bibliographies, which more directly reflect the needs of patrons. The focus is on knowing users information-gathering patterns and needs by being more personal and sensitive in the reference interviews.

Librarians may be considered mapmakers "in two basic and interrelated ways." (p. 301) "We are engaged in mapmaking and map interpreting both in our bibliographic systems and in our personal interaction with users, they are engaged in a truly cybernetic endeavor; as we learn more about our readers' inner maps, and search schemata, we can improve our bibliographic arrangements by making them easier to understand and more flexible in meeting the varied needs of users, and most essentially, also cumulative: we learn to do better and so do the users, because we keep adding to our maps - we grow." (Ibid.)

MERTA, A., 1969:

Informatics is known by many names such as informatology, exagelectics, documentalistic, theory of scientific information, or semantic theory of information. It emerged as a consequence of 'ignorance in consequence of information abundance' which created some 20-30% duplication of research by insufficient information retrieval.

Informatics is a synthetic discipline studying and creating social links and exchange of information. It directly interrelates with mathematics (mathematical logic), linguistics and semiotics (as information retrieval language), cybernetics and mathematical theory of information (determining parameters of the discipline), methods and means of information transmission, reprography (recognition theory), and system engineering (technical issues).

"The object of study of theoretical informatics comprises a single complex of processes, in particular: the process of transformation of new knowledge into information . . . the processes of the origination of all types of information sources, both primary and secondary . . . information communication processes [including] technical equipment, economic patterns and organization of information transmission." (p.35)

METZGER, PHILIP A., 1994:

A book is defined "as a carrier of permanent text meant for distribution. Its physical manifestations vary over time and place and depend on a culture's needs and the technology available to it." (p.81)

The development of the book's physical format is traced to (a) individual, unique clay tablets in Egypt, (b) scrolls, made either of the papyruses or parchment and codices used by Greeks, Romans and Jews, and (c) books printed and recorded on various media, with multiple copies of the same text made since Guttenberg invention.

MICHAELS, CAROLYN D.C.L, 1985:

The major theme of this book is the assumption that "the organization and collections of libraries create the textbook for knowledgeableness and informationability." (p.8)

Critical thinking includes "ability to organize, select, and relate ideas and the ability to distinguish between fact and opinion. (Ibid., p.21) Critical thinking is a pyramid made of facts (at the base of a pyramid), opinion, judgment and value (at the top of the pyramid). Unsupported opinions are like clouds revolving around the pyramid.

Michaels lists three kinds of skills necessary in learning: the ability to (1) cipher, to read, (2) to abstract, analyze, generalize, and (3) to utilize the material received in the brain by means of the other two skills.

The library is defined as "an organized collection of the carriers of knowledge." Organization is "both a way of referring to an ability to locate library materials, and a way to show the interrelationships between them." (p.42) Collection is the basic concept in library work and its professionalism. Carriers define the library's function as a knowledge store-house. Knowledge is the information packaged into higher level of organization.

A library "is a group of things that have been brought together to provide specific knowledge for the use of specific people to serve a specific purpose at a specific point in time." (p.43)

The author discusses three kinds of truth: (1) propositional, ('a statement of a hypothesis followed by the proof of this hypotheses'), (2) existential (Sartre's concept of existential existence), and (3) subjective (Kierkegaard's focus on the subject of truth as an environment of which an individual is a part).

Librarians' role as an educator is defined by the propositional truth of critical thinking and the substance of natural, scientific and technical disciplines. The value concepts emerge from the other two types of truth. "Librarians should provide source material from which human values can grow." (p.275)

MIKAILOW, A.I., 1969:

This is an introduction to a series of essays on informatics, defined as "a discipline that studies general laws and regularities governing the collection, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of scientific information . . . [by] use of data of logic, psychology, neurophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics, semiotics, information theory, mathematical logic, systems engineering, scientology, library science, bibliography, book science, and of a whole complex of technical disciplines associated with machines employed in information activities." (p.3)

Major problem areas include: differentiation and integration of the informatics domain, terminology and definition, theory of information retrieval, relationships between language and retrieval, psychology of scientific creativity, organization, processing and classification of records.

---- 1983:

"The word 'information' can be replaced with other terms like: 'control signal', 'code', 'control action' etc. In these cases, information appears as a necessary component of some control process, its role being completely predetermined by the control tasks." (p.14)

Information and knowledge are not identical. Information is a form of knowledge separated from its producer into a document. "Not every piece of knowledge can be materialized (transformed into information) and not every social structure needs to transform knowledge into information." (p.15)

Information as a signal is studied by cybernetics, information as a knowledge is the subject of information science and semiotics. "The economic effect of information must be measured from the standpoint of prevented losses, rather that of gains." (p.16) We "must find adequate ways to determine whether all parts of an information environment can secure and absorb the socially-required level of information." (Ibid)

MIKAILOW, A.I., A.I. Chernyi and R.S. Gilyarevskii 1969:

Informatics did not emerge in response to the information explosion since the ratio between available books and readers capacity to read them has been similar throughout ages, although the access was selective.

The main reasons were: (a) increased endorsement by society of cooperation between science and technology, (b) increased efficiency of technology, (c) increased need for resources (fiscal and intellectual expenditures), (d) reduced lag between inventions and their applications, and (e) mission-oriented approach.

Subject matter of informatics are the methods and laws related to recording, analytical-synthetic processes, storage, retrieval and dissemination of scientific information activities, rather than the activities themselves.

Informatics is not interested in determining the truth or validity of information, its usefulness, or novelty. The following disciplines are most relevant.

(1) Semiotics, which is a search for common principles in different signs systems, subdivided into: (a) pragmatics (relations of signs to human), (b) semantics (relations of signs to objects), and (c) syntactics (relations of one sign to another).

(2) Psychology, that includes labor and engineering psychology as well as psycholinguistics (creative thinking).

(3) Library Science and Bibliography (their ideological, cultural and educational functions rather than specific services to scientists).

Informatics is a continuation of library and bibliography science but with radically new methods of coordinated indexes, descriptors, information retrieval language and thesauri.

MIKSA, FRANCIS L., 1985:

Machlup's principle objective was to characterize the economic significance of knowledge or information in American society, by suggesting five categories of knowledge: (1) practical, (2) intellectual, (3) pastime, (4) spiritual and (5) unwanted knowledge. These categories offer a framework for the development of the modern library. They become a point of departure for the library historian's description of current librarianship in terms of modes in which knowledge is retrieved and used.

Of the five categories the first three are of interest to the author. Western society must rely on an organized approach to knowledge for practical or instrumental needs; in the past the use of knowledge in that way played a diminutive role for the organizers of public libraries. Practical knowledge becomes an important aspect of librarianship because of the demands for freedom of information and equal access to it. Both, the intellectual knowledge and pastime reading are central to the very concept of librarianship in its educational role and in providing material requested by its patrons.

MILER, GEORGE A., 1967:

This is a discussion of 'the magical number seven, plus or minus two' hypothesis that describes limits of human capacity for processing information.

In the measurement of a memory span a distinction is made between the span of absolute judgment and the span of immediate memory, both impacting on the human ability to process information. "Absolute judgment is limited by the amount of information. Immediate memory is limited by the number of items." (p.36) The magical number seven appears in both situations in a form of seven categories for absolute judgment and the seven digits in the span of immediate memory.

"What about the magical number seven? What about the seven wonders . . . seven sees . . . seven primary colors . . . the seven notes of the musical scale . . . and the seven days of the week?" (p.43) "Perhaps there is something deep and profound behind all these sevens, something just calling out for us to discover it. But I suspect that it is only pernicious, Pythagorean coincidence." (Ibid.)

---- 1983a:

In the past, application of the information theory to experiments in psychology could not accept the view "that people are channels through which information flows into storage or behavior [interest now is] less in measuring channel capacities than in characterizing the processes that limit them." (p.494)

"An interesting question for a theory of semantic information is whether there is an equivalent for the engineer's concept of noise. For example, if a statement can have more than one interpretation and if one meaning is understood by the bearer and another is intended for the speaker, then there is a kind of semantic noise in the communication even though the physical signals might have been transmitted perfectly." (pp. 495-6)

---- 1983b:

Miller discusses briefly different approaches to the relationships between communication and language.

According to Mead' relativistic, empiricistic and environmental view, language developed to meet the needs for communication among members of a group, allowing for abstract thinking, emergence of the concept of the self and of a notion of purposeful behavior. Skinner proposed a strict behavioristic notion of "speech as a chain of conditioned reflexes established by environmentally controlled reinforcements and elicited by the occurrence in the environment of the appropriate discriminative stimuli."(Ibid.)

"An alternative view is that the nature of human language has nothing to do with any need for social communication . . . any complex organism . . . must posses highly developed information-processing capacities in order to survive in an unpredictable environment." (p.319) In this interpretation "language is what it is, not because social interactions are what they are, but because the brain is what it is." (Ibid.)

MILLER, GWENVILLE, 1981:

"Basically, there are two underlying philosophies of librarianship. One is represented by the library which regards its role complete as long as it develops a fine collection of resources, properly organized, expertly catalogued, adequately housed, and attractively presented." (p.81) This is a collection-preservation-oriented storehouse philosophy with no responsibility for encouraging its use.

"Another, and quite different philosophy of librarianship is represented by the library which, assuming excellence of collection development and competency in procedure, places its emphasis upon the patron and his needs [and is] more concerned with the use of resources than with their custody." (Ibid.) This is service--communication oriented philosophy, depending on mutual understanding of spiritual, social and intellectual aspects of the library mission and patrons needs.

"A library can be an asset in theological education if the librarian has a clear vision of the supporting role he plays in research and in the formation of the theologian."(p.82)

MILLER, R.A., 1936:

This view of library philosophy is based on the content of the collection rather than the library itself, the book-mindness rather than library-mindness

There is a danger in starting the philosophy of librarianship with the assumption that the library is the desired end of such a philosophy. Basic is the relationship between the book and the reader, and the library's main purpose

is the distribution of books, facilitating mediation between books and readers, not the direct dissemination of ideas. Radio, or motion pictures, both means of communication, are in competition with book and reading, not with a library.

MILLIS, CHARLOTTE, 1970-71:

This is an annotated list of essays addressing the Library-College concept and its issues related to administrative, technical and public services, education, and indirectly, to some philosophical aspects. The compilation includes essays written between 1889 and 1970s, with majority published in 1960s.

Among authors more relevant to this study were: Bergen and Duryea, Knapp, Licklider, Ortega, Shores, R.S.Taylor, and Louis Round Wilson.

MINNESOTA EDUCATIONAL MEDIA ORGANIZATION, Telecommunication Special Interest Division, 1985:

Definition of technology includes but is not limited to computers, telecommunications, cable television, interactive video, films, low power television, satellite communications and microwave communications. With the society changing from industrial to information based, the functions of the school library center are to oversee selection, acquisition, organization of materials, recommendations to teachers, assistance in designing instructional strategies, storing, maintenance and circulation of hardware and provision of instructional programs.

Technology offers means for individualizing the educational process, while the insight into technological operations provides understanding how the technology can be controlled to serve society.

MISER, H.J., 1991:

This essay argues for the philosophy of operational research based on a dictum that the philosophy of science without the history of science is empty, while the history of science without philosophy of science is blind.

MITTAL, R.L., 1969:

"Mahatma Gandhi was a pragmatic democrat . . . for him the compelling implication of education was that knowledge knew no religion, cast, creed, class, race or nationality . . . his conception of library service almost coincided with that of

. . . S.R. Ranganathan" (p.121)

In the speech of 21 September 1933 "Gandhi enunciated various principles for the organization and administration of libraries. The gist of these principles is that every individual especially the poor, should be provided with an adequate and standardized library service free of charge." (pp.122 ,123)

MOHAMED, OLI, 1975:

"Librarianship, being interdisciplinary in character, and being devoted to the education of others, has its pedagogical foundations in the theory and structure of knowledge. Hence, the primary orientation of the discipline of library science has to be intimately related to the content, structure, and theory of knowledge, rather than with books and graphic records as physical artifacts." (p.3)

Traditional interpretation of librarianship stresses the secondary nature of the profession, its passive custodial function. The new dynamic role focuses on the primary function in the social milieu, away from the book's physical artifacts.

"The theoretical disciplines are essentially cognitive in nature, devoted primarily to the understanding of basic principles . . . [and] seek to apply known principles from the cognitive fields for the solution of practical problems." (p.8) History illustrates the former, librarianship the latter kind of disciplines. Hence, the structural patterns established by cognitive disciplines can be applied to librarianship as a method of organizing knowledge.

There are two approaches to the interpretation of the dynamics of knowledge structure: one identifying structural patterns in each discipline, and the other discovering relationships between the modes of inquiry or methodology of research and information work.

MOHRHARDT, FOSTER E., 1964:

"The three pioneer librarian-documentalists, Ralph Shaw, Jesse Shera and Mortimer Taube, agree that documentation differs from librarianship in two aspects. It performs library-type functions in greater intensity and with evaluation that requires specialized subject knowledge. Shera adds that it is the intensive bibliographic work which he feels distinguish the activities of a documentalist. Taube stresses the impact of technical report literature as driving force for documentalist. Shaw accepts all of these elements and adds that documentation is concerned with a complete cycle of information activities expanding and rounding out the segments selected by librarianship." (p. 747)

MOIGNE, LE JEAN LOUIS, 1985:

A lack of epistemological foundations in information systems can be overcome by (a) considering information systems as a science of design, (b) replacing classical formal logic by modal and self-referential logic, and by (c) introducing memorization system in the modeling of complex systems functions and their internal transformation "in order to integrate in the modeling process, both the functions (synchronic) and the transformations (diachronic) of organizational information systems." (1985, p.247)

MOLE, ADRIAN, 1979:

The author discusses four theories (ideologies) in librarianship.

(1) The conservative theory maintains that librarians are considered guardians or custodians of knowledge and culture. This is an elitist and old-fashioned theory; with the collapse of the power of landed aristocracy, the consensus on what is the proper culture and knowledge disappeared; both become commodities bought and sold in the 'capitalistic' market-place.

(2) The technocratic theory, popular among librarians, sees libraries as delivery systems and efficient means for satisfying majority of the consumers.

(3) The liberal theory considers libraries as systems that provide commodities designed for an individual patron. Librarians as professionals, are the interpreters of individual needs, responsible for effective service. This is the need-in-context approach.

(4) The radical theory has two versions: (a) pseudo-radical view is reactionary and anti-intellectual, expecting librarians to replace elite by people's culture that would satisfy people's will. (b) Genuine radical view requires librarians to critically examine social relations in order to help change the society by helping those who attempt to eliminate the capitalistic power that controls lives of individuals. "Principal role of intellectuals is that of generating useful knowledge and elaborating ideologies which will justify or conceal the realities of inequalities and oppression." (p.150)

"Although it is often claimed that libraries should be neutral, this is only possible in a trivial sense. Neutrality means tacit support for the established order." (p.165)

MOLHOLT, PAT, 1987:

History of libraries can be examined from a number of viewpoints reflecting social movements, political influences, economic fluctuations, or technological development.

Importance of libraries is related to (a) its cost: improved technology cheapened the book expanding private libraries, (b) increased publications: they increased the importance of libraries because of a need for organizing expanded recorded knowledge, (c) introduction of computers: it improved processing of library resources and access to them, by changing the focus from the collection's medium, its size, location and format to their subject-based, personalized information content, and (d) the change from data processing to heuristic and complex artificial intelligence (symbolic information processing) imitated activities similar to reference interviews, performed as system analysis.

MOLNAR, PAL, 1968:

A distinction is made between (a) library science (aims, organization and functioning of libraries) and (b) bibliology (general book science technology and its cultural, social, historical, aesthetic, sociological and economic aspects).

In the West focus on profit stresses the efficiency and statistical evaluation of operations. In the socialistic countries bibliological approach emphasizes editing, distribution, influence on reading, and ethical conformity to Marxist principles.

Russian tradition was expressed by Lissovski's argument for bibliology as a universal discipline based on spiritual, cultural and material production of books, while A.A. Sidorov considered library science as a static, archival, and separate discipline, independent of bibliology.

Polish librarianship is rooted in the bibliological tradition. (a) Bibliographers Joachim Lelevel, Karol Estreicher and Kazimierz Piekarski introduced bibliology (ksiegoznawstwo) as culturo-historical-sociological discipline involved in compiling major bibliographies and stressing book influence on culture.

(b) Library scientist Jan Muszkowski provided a bibliological synthesis based on historical and economic factors, with library transmitting and preserving role subordinated to bibliology. Adam Lysakowski distinguished between individual bibliology (description and classification of books) and systematical bibliology (historical, structural and social aspects of books).

T. Mikulski traced the genealogy of literary history and bibliology. Stefan Vrtel-Wierczynski investigated the bibliography-bibliology relations and the theory of phenomology and morphology,

(c) Theoretical critics: Wladyslaw Bienkowski rejected bibliology as pseudo-science, and its neutrality; there is no unique 'book in itself' as a subject, detached from its own content. Tadeusz Margul also rejected the theoretical approach to librarianship stressing the importance of the practical and educational role of a library. Karol Glombiowski advocated priority of books over libraries, considering their production, description, distribution, preservation and social utilization. Wladislaw Piasecki opposed the superiority of book stressing the importance of librarianship as a profession taught at the university level.

In East Germany: Adolf von Harnack represented pragmatic approach, while Joris Vorsitius argued for a unifying principle for different kinds of libraries in utilizing library resources for the society's benefit. Horst Kunze focused on a book as instrumental role in the library involvement in the political education.

In Czechoslovakia, (a) Check librarian Jaroslav Drtina rejected historical, formalist, positivist, psychological and experimental sociological approaches in preference for technical aspects and ideological responsibilities of libraries. (b) In Slovakia, A. Banik argued for bibliology as a study of book, considering libraries and bibliology in the context of literary and cultural history. Jozef Spetko maintained that biblilogy is subject of a dichotomy between material and intellectual aspects of the book.

In Yugoslavia, Matko Rojnic was skeptical of library science based on either the knowledge of book or on social and cultural roles of librarians. The libraries perform only an instrumental role in society.

In Rumania, Mircea Tomescu focused on the role of library as social utilization.

In Bulgaria, Todor Borov rejects the concept of library theory because of constantly changing foundations of libraries.

In Hungary, Farkas Gyalui called for recognition of the academic status of librarianship. Pal Gulyas distinguished three parts in the book-knowledge: (1) biblioeconomy (organization and history), (2) bibliology (technology) and (3) bibliography (descriptive and systematic). Ervin Szabo closely related librarianship to the study of books. Geza Sebestyen stressed the importance of both basic and applied research (i.e., theory and its methodology). Mate Kovacs developed a schematic presentation of librarianship based on Marxian principles, integrating book and library culture with their social utilization in the context of real life.

In general "the socialist concept of bibliology is based on the dialectical principle that books and book culture are also subject to the common laws prevailing in nature and society, and that the employment of these laws is likely to promote effective practical activities in these fields." (p.30)

MOLZ, KATHLEEN, 1970:

The author makes a distinction between intellectualism as a content (in a historical and systematic meaning) and intellectualism as a style (reflecting individual sensibility).

There is a subtle transition from education for

content to education for conviction, from knowing the right things to feeling the right ways, from a curriculum-oriented content of education to one oriented to sensibility. It is a call for relevance, commitment and belief in the library's social function, as manifested by the social activism of 'we -care' librarians. (p.30)

---- 1979:

Concept of equal education in the United States is a product of 19th century. With the decline of the availability of free land, education rather than property becomes a symbol of economic stability and prosperity, expecting a common school curriculum to eliminate discrepancies, promoting public libraries, and arguing for equal chance for the pursuit of education.

The 1954 Supreme Court's decision to end racial segregation initiated a shift from arguing for a provision of equal education to its effects, questioning the original intend of free school movement. Historical Revisionist claimed that schools were consciously designed by liberal reformers as undemocratic instruments of manipulation and social control, designed to keep poor people in line.

Development of research methodologies analyzing public policy by sociologists and economists, interrelated policy analysis with research, distinguishing between 'discipline research' (academic) and 'policy research' (government initiated).

Policy research is interdisciplinary, future oriented and is conceptualized as a process. Criticism of American public education as a tool of capitalistic exploitation illustrated by the s.c. 'distributive justice' propagated a political agenda that did not contribute to the closing of a gap between rhetoric and reality. The above reasoning had an impact on public libraries, which become a subject to similar revisionistic criticism.

In 1935 there was no political interest in the libraries. the position reflected 'institutional' approach to describe but not explain government activities.

In 1950s behavioral approach focused on analyzing and explaining its operations.

In the 1960s the research was more focused on studying government as a continuous policy making process, to provide decision makers with options in delivering services outside of the institutional framework. Effectiveness of libraries and their priorities in providing financial support was questioned.

In 1970s behavioralists asked the question: 'who is reading what and why', further expanding societal aspects of the library by stressing value judgment, such as cost-benefits, efficiency of operations and effectiveness of a public library in meeting social needs. Most of the library studies were directed at the improvement of library efficiency, not addressing the accountability and distributive policy issues.

Recently attempts were made to introduce 'social indicators' that would measure qualitative aspects of operations. Although social accounting will never be perfect, it can be partly addresses by means of setting measurable goals and objectives, thus responding to the increased social responsiveness of the decade.

MONEY, CHRISTOPHER P., 1984:

This is a review of Adler's definition of philosophy as a discussion of the principles and purposes of human life with a focus on ideas (not people or events).

The six ideas identified by Adler are: truth, goodness, beauty, liberty equality and justice. Every statement of knowledge has two distinct aspects: an objective truth value and subjective psychological persuasiveness; the truth refers to the correspondence between a statement of fact in language and the state of affairs in reality. Beauty refers to the enjoyable and admirable; goodness to the desired but also desirable, liberty or freedom depends upon choosing the desirable goods and justice is contrasted with being unjust.

MONTANELLI, DALE S., 1986:

With the ending of industrial age and beginning of information age, librarians as gatekeepers for information resources should focus their attention to the changing values of their society.

The library goals did not change, what has changed is the environment in which information is being provided: (a) from centralized to decentralized, (b) from managerial to entrepreneurial, (c) from hierarchies to networks, (d) from representative democracy to participatory democracy, and (e) from the extended family to the individual as the basic unit of American society.

These changes will increase emphasis on the individual's need to give and receive information,"the more we rely on online databases for storage and retrieval of information, the more librarians will be wanted" (p.39), because of the increased need for one-to-one human interaction.

MONROE, MARGARET E., 1962a:

"While librarianship grew up as an art, today it is developing in a world dominated by science. Within librarianship we are relying less on inspiration and more on investigation

. . . evaluating by quantitative measurements of the preselective factors rather than by that wonderful thump-in-the-middle when the reader's face lights up with understanding." (p.818) "I am by no means saying that librarianship has rejected inspiration, but rather that we are balancing its rush of power and improvisation with the steady drive and analysis of investigation. Nor do I think we have discontinued the human signs that betoken the achievement of our goal, but instead, with some objectivity, we now attempt to balance that single overwhelming success with a picture of those whose faces alas, did not light up." (Ibid.)

The revised concept of standards was introduced to librarianship in 1950 and 60s. Before then, the standards were based on average library practices. Since then the focus is on the objectives of service, the elements determining it and the processes implementing the standards.

---- 1962b:

Library selection principles are twofold. First, library collections ought to include best expressions of opposite opinions and librarians should encourage a user to consult more than one viewpoint; the collections should be evaluated in terms of their conformity with scientific facts and compatibility with fundamental human values. Second, selections should be drawn from authoritative sources.

The major dilemma is the inability of 'illiterate literate' patrons to judge the validity of expressed opinions. Reader services "has developed one guiding principle for meeting public crisis; the library should make it impossible for adults to miss the socially significant materials of their time, and - as a corollary- the library takes no responsibility for telling people what to think but does take responsibility for proposing what they shall think about." (p.374)

---- 1963:

Library service exists only when there is a demand for it. Librarians provide assistance only to the patrons who want it and help clarify their inexact demands by anticipating them.

"The public library is a community service that functions only through meeting demands, and at the same time it is a social institution with particular responsibilities which it can fulfill only as it encourages its public to make increasingly significant demands upon it. It encourages an improved quality of demand through raising public expectation of library service and through simulating public aspiration for knowledge and ideas. The public demand is the seed of intellectual life which the library nourishes and cultivates for the best uses of the individual and for the purposes of society." (p.518)

MOOERS, CALVIN N., 1974:

Shannon discussed the interrelationships between message-code-channel as a signaling process. Seboek focused on the source-destination-designation triad in information exchange. The two triads can be overlaid forming a hexagon: source-channel-destination-codes-designation -message, characterized by Fairthorne as a 'notification, which ' addresses all aspects of transferring the author's message to its recipient, together with the physical, conceptual and logistic issues.

The six-node notification in turn can be analyzed in terms of the twenty different triads: (1) discourse (destination, designation, source), (2) signalling (codes, messages, channels), (3) not named (codes, designations, sources), (4) parking (designations, messages, channels), (5) linguistics (messages, sources, destinations), (6) transmission (sources, channels, codes), (7) not named (channels, destinations, designation), (8) addressing (destination, codes, messages), (9) not named (designations, sources, channels), (10) not named (messages, channels, destinations), (11) not named (sources, destinations, codes), (12) not named (channels, codes, designations), (13) prescription (destination, designation, messages), (14) attribution (codes, messages, sources), (15) reception (channels, destinations, codes), (16) not named (destinations, codes, designations), (17) marking (codes, designations, messages), (18) not named (designations, messages, sources), (19) not named (messages, sources, channels), and (20) routing, delivery (sources, channels, destinations).

"This kind of speculative thinking upon the various kinds and ramifications of analysis . . . suggested by the Notification System Hexagon . . . may possibly stimulate a researcher into looking more deeply into one or other of the triads." (p.193)

MOORE, EVERETT T., 1960:

The author warns against condescending approach in discussing differences between national library systems.

"Neither condescension nor self-deprecation seems helpful in such situations." (p.1531) The "pride we take in our libraries must be tempered with knowledge of how our libraries came about." (Ibid.) We "have inherited the institution of free library service and free access to books." (Ibid.) "Good library does not automatically follow political well-being or prosperity . . . remembering these, one is not inclined to feel superior to others whose libraries have not yet had the opportunities our have had to grow to maturity." (Ibid.)

MORALES, MELVYN, 1985:

The application of applied mathematics and statistics in social sciences lead to the emergence of specific 'metric' fields within various disciplines.

Morales discusses a model of metric disciplines as the relationship between library science (bibliometrics), information science (informetrics) and science of science (scientometrics).

Bibliometrics is a quantitative method used in studying scientific communication processes, by analyzing written records. Informetrics is defined as a mathematical description and analyses of the properties and laws in information science.

Scientrometrics extends the notion of the application of quantitative, statistical measurements in information science to other sciences, providing a structure of knowledge in these fields.

Informetrics is important in organizing, developing and improving scientific information activities in a national information system.

MORRISON, ELIZABETH, 1980-81:

This is a discussion of the research methods used in librarianship. (1) Quantitative methods can be aiming at: (a) trend extrapolation (projections of future trends based on unchanged structure), and (b) mathematical modeling (predictions that includes variables by utilizing probability distributions). (2) Qualitative methods include: (a) scenario-writing (narrative of hypothetical future state of affairs) and (b) Delphi method (utilizing a group consensus).

Quantitative methods are most often used to determine changes in structure, qualitative methods concentrate on the possible changes in substance. The values of these methods to librarianship are threefold, they can (1) augment conventional research, (2) stimulate imagination and (3) bridge a gap between research and practice.

"If the research is the advancement of knowledge and knowledge is defined as including truth about what could be (what is technically feasible and logically possible, given certain assumptions) then future research may be legitimized as research." (p.206)

MORTAZAVIAN, HASSAN, 1983a:

The author discusses system-theoretic concepts in terms of system theory and information science. A set is a collection of sense- or thought- objects. Relation is a way of relating the elements or objects of one set to another.

System may be defined as 'an abstract relation between sets of objects', a general notion, independent of particular objects. It can be twofold: (1) constructive (from deterministic to stochastic systems with gradually increasing complexity), and (2) analytical (toward greater abstractions and logical simplicity). The choice between these two approaches is dictated not by subject matter but by the investigator's preference, the purpose of research and state of development in a particular area.

The systems are (a) nonlinear (including more than two variables), (b) continuous (continuously changing vs. discrete, changing only at certain point in time), (c) deterministic (exact knowledge of output is ascertainable from exact knowledge of input) or (d) stochastic (not determined, with future behavior unpredicted).

There are two basic approaches to modeling: (a) theory-dominated based on assumption that laws govern the functioning of system, and (b) the second, data-dominated, assuming that these laws are not known and therefore a model is based on available data. It is important to distinguish between a concrete system and a model representing it, implying one of the two parameters: (a) descriptive with implicit constrains and (b) intrinsic with explicit constrains.

A distinction is made between information (a content), amounts of information (supplied), semantic and nonsemantic (physical) information. The theory of semantic information deals with the meaning of information content, theory of communication is concerned with signal transmission. For engineers the more improbable is an event or a signal, the more information it carries; here 'information' is related to the concept of probability.

Information science is "the assemblage of systematic studies aimed at understanding, interpreting, analyzing, and measuring information; and modeling, organizing, and utilizing the process of transferring information, or more generally, knowledge - be it among humans, humans and machines, or only among machines." (p.542)

An information system in the nonsemantic sense is a special type of relation between input and output. Information science has two basic problems (1) how to analyze and measure information content of a set of data and (2) how to model information system.

"Without adequate information about inputs, outputs, processing, and location of books in a library . . . we cannot develop a model of the operation of a library as a system. The question of what is the minimal information set required to identify the structure and develop a (structural) model of a system is, then, an extremely important but as yet open question. There is . . . no general theory that determines such a . . . minimal information set." (p.544)

---- 1983b:

"Mathematicians were never truly devoted to understanding complexity. They were devoted to the search for truth, generality, and simplicity. System theory, however, deals with complexity [hence there is a need] to develop new types of mathematics." (p.574)

"System theory cannot be applied unless the general setting of a concrete problem is such that the numerical quantities that are put into the dynamics of the model or from which a model is to be constructed are mathematically well defined . . . system theory must be applied mathematically. (p.575)

Philosophy of systems deals with problems centered around the concept of systems, it must be distinguished from system theory, which is the science of systems.

MOSES, JOEL, 1983:

Computer science is "not a physical science. The physical sciences are concerned with discovering the principles of the design of a single system." (p.158) "Computer science deals with principles for creating new, large man-made systems and is not limited to studying computer systems." (Ibid.)

As a branch of engineering, computer science is an abstract engineering independent of a physical world. As a branch of management it is considered abstract management dealing with discrete components (people) and discrete information flow.

Since mathematicians were not interested in issues of efficiency, computer scientists had to develop new mathematics for discrete systems. Major issue in the discrete man-made systems is the control of complexity. The simplicity is achieved by reducing the number of interconnections within the system, using top-down method of breaking each complex problem into fewer components.

"The science underlying computer science has little to do with computers. Rather, it is the systematic study of issues related to the design of discrete, man-made systems." (p.161)

MUKHERJEE, A.K., 1966:

The author focused on two aspects of librarianship: (1) library philosophy that is seen by many in terms of its pragmatism, and (2) history of the library as one of the oldest institution that developed with an emerging culture. The book is basically an anthology, relying heavily on secondary sources.

Mukherjee identified but not resolved conceptual problems of distinguishing between (a) librarianship and library science, and between library science, philosophy of librarianship and art of librarianship.

Discussion of the philosophy of librarianship is based on the following assumptions: (1) librarianship is a social process bound with the life of its community; (2) libraries' social role is to educate, inform and entertain, it provides tools for needed information and knowledge; (3) it focuses on reading, group interest and dependence on community values with an responsibility to contribute to new ideas; (4) the library is necessary component in any philosophy of librarianship and it includes a definition of librarianship, its purpose, goals and a statement describing relations with other disciplines.

Value of philosophy of librarianship is in providing systematic body of general concepts which classify library purposes, validates its approaches, add meaning to a library's technical processes and offers clarity to the claims for professional status of librarians.

The operational philosophy of librarianship reflects the practical side of the field as an art. It includes a notion of validating library technique, considering selection as rejection, classification as a tool for reference, cataloging and classification as finding devices, open access through open stacks as aids to patrons and including a concept of centralized processing and decentralized services.

Professional ethics defines roles of different types of libraries from public to special and offers the creed and code of behavior. It calls for the concept of an ideal librarian based on (a) belief in the value of librarians as keepers of books selected for the furtherance of learning, promotion of society's culture and professional neutrality, (b) opposing dogmatism and (c) supporting freedoms to study, freedom of thoughts, speech, and press, freedom of dissemination of knowledge and of instruction. The library should be perceived as one big reference institution, combining scholarly background of the librarian, with his technical proficiency and broad humanism. Patrons should be educated through reading.

The library role in society is to entertain, educate and inform. The historical trend indicates a growth of nationalism, democratization, increased access to collections, fast expanding technology of processing (automation), improved education for librarianship and emergence of comparative librarianship.

The authors discussed the philosophical contribution to librarianship of A. Broadfield, P. Butler, J.P. Danton, M. Dewey, D.J. Foskett, C.O. Houle, R. Irwin, Ch.B. Joeckel, B. Lanheer, G.R. Lyle, J.Z. Nitecki, and S.R. Ranganathan

MUMFORD, L. QUINCY, 1966:

"Librarianship is a journey, not a destination. One never is a librarian; one is always becoming a librarian. (p.902)

The library profession must develop (a) an incentive to creative thinking, (b) a responsibility for producing leaders, and (c) a philosophy of librarianship, all these requirements are interrelated and time-bound.

Problems that have to be answered prior to the formulation of the philosophy of librarianship are: (a) the relationships of libraries to information centers, (b) the function of the professional librarian, (c) the place of libraries in the nation's educational structure, (d) the definition of libraries' public in an age of mass-produced reading material, (e) the role of the book, and (f) the need for the separate and distinct types of libraries that we know today.

"Only by continually challenging our inherited professional beliefs do we arrive at their real value." (p.906)

MURISON, W.J., 1971:

The first public library in England was established in 1549. Its primary objective, constant throughout history, was and is the enhancement of the individual, and a provision of free opportunity for self-improvement by education or recreation, without imposing any particular viewpoint.

"The fullest and nobles significance of the public library movement will be seen when current social problems are being investigated, alleviated, and overcome by the work of the libraries, when ignorant prejudices are banished in favour of enlightened toleration, when the libraries have stimulated a real desire for learning and are recognized as a universal insurance against ignorance, when the effects of the libraries are felt, directly or indirectly by every member of the community, when the librarian brings to fruition his function of encouraging reading in those who are at present illiterate, and when the purpose of reading has been realized as a means of enjoyment of living and the improvement of mankind." (p.237)

MUSMANN, KLAUS, 1978:

To understand the nature of Post-Industrial society, librarians will have to address the following major issues.

(a) Conflict between the elitist techno-economic structure and the populist culture of the society, the changing role of the individual and the impact of these changes on libraries. The conflict is between bureaucratic and hierarchical technical structure, stressing efficiency and rationality and materialistic, hedonistic, anti-intellectual and anti-rational, self-centered culture.

(b) The meaning and value of the information explosion. Culture becomes visual with individuals preferring to see rather than read, and media becoming the message.

(c) The role of technology as a change agent and its impact on librarianship. The computer technology allows for efficient manipulation of information, shifting the focus of librarians from simple data classification to pattern recognition.

" Our strength for the future lies in the fact that the post-industrial society will be an information-dependent . . . information will assume position of central importance . . . human endeavor will become increasingly dependent upon a theoretical orientation [and] the library will be able to make a necessary evolutionary transformation from a passive information storage center of the printed media to a vitally important information center of knowledge in whatever form. " (pp. 233-4)