Relevance notes at the end of each entry contain brief summaries of the philosopher's major theme related to this study [P] and subject matter of interest to Library Information Science [L] with the number of citations in brackets. Most of the descriptions of philosophers viewpoints are abstracted from The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967), a handbook (Ave y, 1954) and two dictionaries of philosophy (Angels, 1992 and Runes, 1983).

ADLER, MORTIMER, J. (1902- ):

Born in New York, Adler thought philosophy in Columbia and Chicago universities and directed the Institute for Philosophical Research. Known as 'a philosopher for everyman', he appeals more to the general audience than to the professional philosophers. His many publications cover conceptual an alysis on a variety of issues reflecting scholastic approach and existential attitude.

Adler defines philosophy as a discussion of the principles and purposes of human life in terms of six ideas: truth, goodness, beauty, liberty, equality and justice. The truth refers to the correspondence between a statement of facts in language and the state of affairs in reality. Goodness relates to the desired and desirable things in life, the beauty to the enjoyable and admirable experiences. The liberty or freedom is determined by the social equality and justice. [Ch.P. Money, 1984]

Of particular interest to librarians is his distinction of three types of reading (1) structural or analytical, from the whole to the parts, (2) interpretative or synthetical from the parts to the whole, and (3) critical evaluating particular author's intention. Reading contributes to the development of an individual, the reading material may be used for personal, social, professional or vocational purposes. [W.Dunnett, 1984]

Adler considered reading not only as a process of learning but also of thinking. "In reading we are able to experience things that no longer exist and to understand things that are totally unfamiliar to us' (In J.Z. Nitecki, 1986).

Direct, person-to-person communication is almost always an interchange, in which comments, follows each other in mutual simulation, similar to relationship between pitcher and catcher in baseball. Adler identified six ways of classifying knowledge: (1) by diversity of objects (eg. knowledge of facts or ideas), (2) by the faculty involved in knowing (eg. sense perception), (3) by the method or means of knowing (eg. a priori or a posteriori), (4) by degree of assent (eg. certain-probable), (5) by the end or aim of knowing (eg., theoretical-practical), and (6) by the media of communicating knowledge (eg. their means and methods). He also dist inguished between (a) education by learning as a natural process of human being by discovery and experience, and (b) teaching, learning by instruction (art). In society we learn by the combination of both, the practical and artistic processes. (J.H. Shera, 1972)

There is never a perfect communication, there is always a loss, and reading is better or worse depending how active it is, and there is no absolutely passive reading. (Shera, 1973)

Adler discusses the use of the concept of form and its various meanings throughout Western philosophy (Young, 1987).

Relevance :

P: Pragmatist: Common sense approach to philosophy and ethics,

analyzes of the thinking processes.

L: Classification of knowledge, reading, communication

(6 citations).

AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775-1836)

French physicist remembered for his major contribution to the foundations of electrodynamics. In philosophy his focus was on introspective analysis of the association of ideas, assuming the possibility of knowing inferentially the relationships between things-in-themselves. He divided association of ideas into ordinary recalls and merged ideas. The former is unaffected by their contiguity, the latter blend with th eir recollection of previous ideas, as perception. His interest in classification of science is today of mere historical value.

Ampere introduced, long before Norbert Wiener, the word 'cybernetique' meaning 'the science of government' (Colin E. Cherry, 1952). He defined it as the study, within international law and diplomacy, of relationships between people in making choices for achieving the desired goals. Thus he considered cybernetics as a subscience of government, 'an art of steering in general'. [M. Eden, 1983, p.409)

Relevance :

P: Realist: Knowledge by inference of relationships between

things-in-themselves.

L: Historical reference to classification and cybernetics. (2 citations)

AQUINAS, THOMAS (1225-1274):

Italian philosopher and theologian and a proponent of realism in Christian religion. He Christianized Aristotle's thesis of independence, form and the principle of immanence (each existence aims at perfection).

At one time an oblate at the Monte Cassino monastery, he studied Greek, Jewish and Arabian philosophies, criticized Augustine's Platonic theory of knowledge for underestimating the human reason to know truth, and formulated principles of Christian humanism and naturalism.

In metaphysics Aquinas made a distinction between (a) what a being is, and (b) the fact that it is; a distinction between understanding the being (its essence) and the act of being (esse). He maintained that knowledge can be gained from sense data of matter leading to the study of form. His dualism of matter and spirit is based on Aristotle's view of matter and form. Science is defined as knowledge of facts through general principles. Philosophy is the knowledge of ultimate things through r eason.

Overall, Aquinas had an open mind approach in his search for information, and he stated that the arguments from authority are the weakest kinds of evidence in philosophical reasoning.

Aquinas affirmed the concept of 'censorship', justified by Plato's doctrine of general good, implemented by Romans in the fifth century and later codified by the invention of print in order to regulate the flow of information. (F.J. Stielow, 1983)

Aquinas assumed that form is an ideal, abstract nonphysical, metaphysical and universal entity that operates on matter, and has to do with essential nature of soul of things. (Young, 1987)

Relevance :

P: Moderate realist: mediating between philosophical

controversies such as the status of universals (e.g.,

humanity, justice, whiteness) as realities in themselves or

mental constructs; importance of metaphysical form.

L: Aristotelean viewpoint in Catholic philosophy of

librarianship; support for censorship. (2 citations)

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC):

A member of Plato's Academy, a tutor to Alexander of Macedonia and founder of the Peripatetic school, Aristotle was a philosopher and scientist, the first biologist, and the student of change manifested in natural processes.

His contributions can be divided into three distinct periods corresponding to the three major phases in his life; changing from the enthusiastic support of Platonism, the critique of Plato's notion of 'form' to the final rejection of its metaphysics, replacing it with the principles of empirical science.

The relationships between phy sical and formal, spiritual worlds in Greek philosophy, represented by Plato humanistic systematized 'form philosophy' and Democritus materialistic focus on 'matter philosophy', were joined by Aristotle's synthesis between the two in ontological dualism (Wright, H.C., 1986).

In every century an attempt is made to compare the relationships between life (mind) with its known at the time, machine (nervous system). This, was represented by a central concept, 'pneuma' in Ari stotle's philosophy. It probably fulfilled a function of a general intermediator between 'psyche' and 'soma', an important role in the life-matter relations. Aristotle used the term 'pneuma' as a metaphor, which later was interpreted as a prototype of an engine and a model for a mechanistic viewpoint (Eden, M., 1983).

The interpretation of each term changed with time. 'Pneuma' meant a spirit, vital force, psychic energy. 'Psyche' referred to the principle of life, sou l or mind, the state of being alive, the source of consciousness or conscience. 'Soma' the body, developed into 'somatic' reference to the bodily organisms and 'somatic data' originated with bodily sensations as contrasted with 'sense data' caused by external sources.

Aristotle divided science (an analytical knowledge of the causes of things) into theoretical (abstract), practical (guide of conduct) and productive (guide of art) disciplines. Based on a logical syllogis m of subject-predicate relationships, knowledge rests on the intellectual apprehension, supported by the empirical aspects of subject-matter.

Scientific inquiry aims at discovery of four causes of physical things: (1) material (physical matter), (2) efficient (the origin of things), (3) formal (their form) and (4) final (reason for their existence). Every object is a union of two principles: of matter and of form, as a process from potential to actual existence. The su bstance stands for what things are made of, the form is the specific characteristics of these things. The substance can change its form from potential to the actual.

The philosophy of nature is based on real, spontaneous, continuous and directed changes from the primary, simple elements of matter to more complex structure and functions.

Aristotle (and Plato) considered body as the instrument of the soul, its nature determined by its func tion; the soul is defined as the first entelechy of an organic body as a life-principle, the force that moves the body as its instrument. He distinguished between 2 kinds of truth: experiential (artistic, true to the perceiver's experiences) and intellectual (scientific, true to the objective reality). Poetry is an art of making poetry, not its product. The art, 'the techne' is a set of rules, system, or a method of making or doing'. Aristotle disagreements with Plato were part of internal dispute, r elated to his emphases on common sense and empirical facts. He retained from Plato the teleological point of view and an assumption that reality lies in form. He rejected however, the two-worlds philosophy of Plato, by trying to stay within this world. In general, the scientific approach (primarily Aristotelean) stresses form in matter, the humanistic the form and matter (basically Platonic); both approaches are correct, depending on the object of study: most scientists opt for immanence, most human ists for transcendence; the problem may arise when humanist study scientific phenomena and vice versa. (H.C. Wright, 1977a)

Aristotle, together with Plato, assumed that form is an ideal, abstract nonphysical, metaphysical and universal entity that operates on matter, and has to do with essential nature of soul of things. He specifically made a distinction between eidos and morphe (ideal and material form), the material object pass through 'potential' stages toward some ideal actual form; its purpose is to reach that ideal form (the distinction between potential and actual existence) (Young, 1987).

In ethics, the human good is expressed in the process of actualization of rational faculties in theoretical inquiry and contemplation of truth. People by nature are 'political animals', living in a society which through its institutions satisfies our primary needs. Our happiness may be based on (1) pleasure and enjoyment, (2) free and respo nsible citizenship and (3) reflective philosophy. Aristotle also distinguished between ethics as science and as morality, maintaining that we start with intuition of the principles and combine them with the knowledge by induction from the interpreted sense-perception (Capuro,R, 1985).

Aristotle considered science as dealing with absolute certainties, logically demonstrable truth (this method exists only in mathematics; to him biology, ethics, politics or psychology w ere inquiries rather than sciences) (Machlup, 1980).

He focused more on the issues related to natural phenomena than on the reasoning processes. His own library collection and its organization were important factors in the development of the Alexandrian library (Burke, R.A., 1953).

Application of Aristotelean philosophy:

(a) General: Grover R. and J. Glazier (1986), proposed a model for theory building based on A ristotelean notion that 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'; it is not enough to understand each component individually, but that the approach must be holistic; its basic principle is the concept of unity or interconnectedness, integral to the taxonomy.

Terminology created by Aristotle is still used today. The idea or the form of a particular object is a concept based on the particular characteristics of that object's species, with no independent existence of its own. Contrary to Plato's belief that everything first exists in the world of ideas, Aristotle maintained that nothing exists in our consciousness prior to its sense experience.

A.R. Anderson (1967) noted that Boolean Algebra is based on the close parallels between Aristotelian subject-predicate propositions and the ordinary algebra of numbers, giving rise to the modern symbolic (rather than Aristotelean) logic of quantifiers, so basic in the computer search proc esses.

In his model Aristotle frequently used mechanical and organismic analogies (G. Harmon, 1973) The Aristotelean law of identity "A is A" is represented in bi-valued English, as opposed to 'multi-valued' Chinese (the differences are part of relations rather than absolute e.g., 'longness' and 'shortness'). Philosophy of education is rooted in classical Aristotlean and Platonic tradition. (J.H. Shera, 1972)

(b) Related to LIS:

Aristotle's discussion of the first philosophy offers metaphysically useful observation and an argument for the definition of librarianship. In Aristotle's terms librarian qua librarian is a quality or an attribute predicated to a more primary substance; fullest meaning of librarianship requires extending beyond itself, to that upon which it depends (J.Ch. McConnell, 1992).

Aristotle's analysis of change consisted of isolating three elemen ts: terminus ad quo, terminus ad quem and the process. Related to librarianship, terminus ad quem is the end of a process and is clearly identified with the reader; the process itself can be related to the procedures, while the terminus ad quo stands for either the books or the librarian or both. The lack of a satisfactory answer which of the two it is, causes ambiguity and confusion in the philosophy as well as in library theory (Petocz, 1969).

In his argument against l ibrarians political neutrality, J.A. Hennessy (1981a) refers to Aristotle's notion that inequality arises when two equals are treated unequally, or when unequals are treated equally. This implies that a neutral library cannot disseminate information effectively, hence political information in libraries is crucial for minimizing impact of political power and organization that takes the advantage of that inequality.

Shera (1965) noted that: (1) Aristotelean concept of t he hierarchy in classifying knowledge is rejected, if classification is to adjust to constant changes in the development of knowledge. For that reason the problem of Bacon's scheme of classifying knowledge is traced to Aristotelean concept of hierarchy. Librarians in response to constantly changing pattern of patrons use of the collection, utilized Aristotelean concepts of genus, species and subspecies by rationalizing the procedure in terms of average use by average reader and added the compression of hierarchical pattern by mono-dimensionality of physical arrangements of collections. (2) Organization of knowledge (and library collections) always relates to Aristotelean concepts of genus, species, differentia, property, accident, and hierarchical structure of knowledge. (3) Library education should include both Aristotelean and symbolic logic.

(c) Related to information:

Essential elements of the information society were already identi fied in Aristotle's time and reflected in the 'Alexandrine imperative' to record all written knowledge. Once recorded, the text should be compared and criticized, leading to its better interpretation (Traue, J.E., 1989).

Aristotelean model of communication as relationship between speaker-Speech-Audience was followed by Shannon's telecommunication model translating 'speaker' into 'source', 'speech' into 'signal' and 'audience' into 'destination', adding 'transmitter' and ' receiver' (McGarry, K. J., 1975).

(d) Related to communication:

According to K.J. McGarry (1975), Aristotle was the first philosopher who in his rhetoric provided systematic study of communication. He based communication process on three basic components: the speaker, the speech and the audience. To him a person who cannot communicate is either below or above humanity. He also pointed to the influence of the speaker's ethos, the quality inf luencing the reaction of the audience. Aristotle's logic is linear, in which an argument follows from another in order to be logically valid.

Aristotle's notion that man is a political animal ('polis', the community or society) was converted in the Twentieth century into the notion than man is a communicative animal. This is an illustration of a sociological principle that social development consists of increased differentiation simultaneous with increased interrelatedn ess (L. Landheer, 1957).

(e) Philosophy of LIS:Among the aspects of Aristotle's philosophy relevant to librarianship are the notions of (a) unchangeability of universal properties of objects (their form) and the changeability of particular components (of their matter), both fundamental aspects of the same thing. (b) Everything has a purpose or function (design and order of the universe). (c) The concept of Golden Mean as a balance between extremes. (d) Importance of organiz ation (hierarchy). (e) Education interpreted as a process of reasoning capacity, necessary in making right choices, with the reciprocal relationships between educated person and citizen. (f) social role of the library in satisfying the intellectual needs of its society. The development of library philosophy can be reviewed in terms of two major approaches of Plato and Aristotle, reflecting the idealistic and pragmatic viewpoints. Aristotelean approach was introduced by Chicago's Graduate Library School which focused on sociological research and methodology, implemented by Shera and Shores (McCrimmon, B., 1994).

In defining library philosophical functions, J. Bekker (1976) notes Aristotle's distinction between efficient cause (applicable in librarianship) and final cause.

Relevance :

P: Aristotle maintained that: (a) rational faculties not only

order sense data but also provide description of real things.

The thought and its power of a priori reasoning provide a clue

to the nature of reality (Rationalistic view). (b) Reality is

independent of the knowledge about its existence. The function

of knowledge is to understand things as beings and their very

being. Aristotle's realis m is also empirical, opposing

initially nominalism, and idealism today (Realistic view).

(c) He distinguishing between: (1) metaphysics as the ultimate

reality and applied disciplines (e.g., logic, ethics,

psychology), and (2) form (what is formally) and matter

(source potential for changes in form) (Conceptual view).

L: Aristotle's philosophy provides bases for the definition of

librarianship, its wholistic theory and classification of

knowledge. He anticipated information society and his

philosophy is now used as an argument for the computer search

processes, and against political neutrality of libraries. (21

citations)

AU STIN, JOHN LANGSHAW (1911-1960):

A British philosopher of ordinary language focusing on the connotation, denotation and gradation of language.

Relevant to librarianship may be his distinction between locutionary, acts relating to definite linguistic meaning and illocutionary acts merely hinting the reference and perlocutionary acts of communication through images.

This approach shared with other analytical schools ca n help librarians to understand better the meaning and use of communication. However, the language clarification may not be enough when recommendation of proper information sources is called for. The analytical method is one of the tools in practice, not the end in itself.

In his review of literature on analytic philosophy of the 20th century, Reed, T.M., (1971) stresses its importance in linguistic, conceptual investigation of philosophically ambiguous concepts in phi losophy as well as in other disciplines. The approach criticizes a priori, speculative interpretation of reality. Within the movement, Reed distinguishes between (a) analytical approach of G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell, (b) Vienna Circle of logical positivism of A.J. Ayer and L. Wittgenstein, and (c) Ordinary Language school of G. Ryle, and J.L. Austin.

Reed points out to the significance of analytical inquiry for nonphilosophical disciplines by providing methodologi cal, conceptual analysis and insight to practitioners own fields of inquiry. The traditional metaphysician concentrating on comprehensiveness and generality seldom offers similar insight.

D.A. Kemp (1976) cited Austin's interpretation of the statement 'I know' as reporting about state of mind or understanding and their relations to reality; although the person uttering this statement does not considers it a report but rather a confirmation that a given statement is true.

Relevance :

P: Analytical philosophy of 'ordinary language' school of

philosophy. Focus on relationships between meaning and use of

language.

L: Possible contribute to the methodological study of

bibliothecal communication. (2 citations).

AYER, ALFRED JU LES (1910-1989).

British philosopher, and a member of the Vienna Circle's Logical Positivism (Scientific Empiricism), made a distinction between (a) open to public verification of factual judgment based on the description of facts, and (b) private, unverified value judgment of emotional expressions. With other analytical philosophers, Ayer rejected systematic philosophy as based on confused language and its meaning. He shared with them the need for clarification of langu age as the main goal of philosophy. He was sometimes called an 'analytically minded empiricist'.

T.M.Reed (1971) refers to Ayer's notion that all meaningful, significant sentences are either nonfactual tautologies (e.g., in pure mathematics), or empirically verifiable propositions (e.g., experimentally tested statements in natural sciences). All other sentences are considered without meaning (e.g., metaphysical statements defying verification). The role of the philosoph er is to interpret, not through speculation but logical analysis, the effects of linguistic usages.

D.A. Kemp (1976) note that to Ayer the distinction between knowledge and true opinion does not exist or is not essential.

Relevance :

P: English version of the logical positivist doctrine

maintaining that every genuine proposition is either

< TT> analytic or empirical.

L: Impact of language usage on library communication. (2

citations)

BACON, FRANCIS (1561-1626)

Although he did not developed philosophical system of his own, Francis Bacon opposed the theological, deductive Aristotelian and Scholastic logic based on dogmatic, a priori assumptions, and instead, proposed an inductive, scientific method for discovering truth by empirical observation, analyses of observed data, hypotheses based on inferences and their verification through observation and experimentation. He introduced the concept of science as a systematic study. In philosophy he preferred materialism of Democritus over idealism of Plato and Aristotle. His major contributions to science and philosophy was in the vision of restoring human mastery over the natural world, but as he himself admitted, he was only able to construc t the new machine, but failed to make it work. D.A. Kemp (1976) pointed to Francis Bacon's major contribution to philosophy of science in combining experimentation and observation in the deductive process. He used memory (history of knowledge), reason (science of philosophy) and imagination (poetry) as the basic sources of knowledge. This tripartite division had great influence on the interpretation of knowledge.

For Bacon an empiricist, science was the 'image of t he essentials, using the terms 'science', 'philosophy' and 'doctrine' as equivalents (F.Machlup, 1980).The typographical fixity, as illustrated by the methods of copying handwritten books, changed radically in Bacon's words 'the appearance and state of the whole world [bringing] the most radical transportation in the conditions of intellectual life' (In E.L. Eisentstein, 1968, p.56).

The core of librarianship is, according to M.F. Winter (1988), a three-part interplay bet ween organizational structure of knowledge, based on the Baconian outline of knowledge, the patterns of information use and the theory of intellectual freedom.

Bacon identified four major preconceptions, called 'idols' that hindered the use of his method: (1) of the Tribe (anthropocentric interpretations), (2) of the Cave (personal prejudices), (3) of the Market Place (use of undefined terms) and (4) of the Theater (indiscriminate acceptance of tradition and authority) . He was an advocate of 'a marriage between the empirical and rational' approaches.

Based on the above concept, B.P. McCrum (1946) identified three idols of librarianship: (1) of the librarians effort to master the machine, (2) of low librarians esteem of themselves as 'mere librarians', and (3) of bureaucracy based on the rigidity, formality and precedents. These idols can be eliminated by changed librarians attitude, better definitions of library performance and impro ved library education.

In his Advancement of Human Knowledge, Bacon divided History (Memory) into Natural History; Poesy (Imagination) into Narrative, and Philosophy (Reason) into Divine; each further subdivided into subclasses until whole knowledge was covered. Contemporary subject classification is primarily based on his 'inverted' categories of knowledge (E.E. Graziano, 1955). This approach influenced William Harris classification system, and in turn, Dewey's D ecimal Classification.

Bacon developed the principle for classifying book content taxonomically based on the assumption that reader uses them in that pattern. He distinguished between three faculties of the human mind: memory, reason and imagination. Librarians accepted uncritically Baconian notion that reading makes a full man, hypothesizing a 'general reader' as a stereotype of public library patrons and promoting reading activity as implicitly desirable. Shera points out that encouraging 'reading qua reading suggests encouraging good reading only, but hopefully based on readers' own judgment of what is good. Bacon encouraged experimental method for discovering facts, but he also objected to the haphazard accumulation of observations. He was suspicious of artificial speculation but encouraged knowledge for its own sake to discover causes and axioms. He also pointed to the fallacy of investigating 'the nature of anything in the thing itself' (J.H. Shera, 1972).

Bacon classification of human knowledge was praised by librarians. His statement that knowledge is power was adapted as one of the principles of librarianship: since libraries are storage of knowledge they are also centers of power (J. Thompson, 1977).

Bacon's statement that 'reading maketh a full man' made three centuries ago still lacks scientific verification. This statement was used by Wilson in his philosophy of librarianship, not so mu ch as the explanation of how it makes a full man or what this fullness consists of, but as the way of raising the question for library research (S. Karetzky, 1982). The statement is accepted on faith, because there is no evidence for that, and no knowledge what kind of reading would accomplish that goal (Shera, 1976).

Francis Bacon's criticisms of 'mean' books was one of the major influences on Putnam's thinking (J. Krieg, 1970 and Library Association, Great Britain, 198 0).

In reviewing different methods in developing a theory of information science, H. Poole (1985) discussed the middle-range theory for research of limited data, each forming 'building blocks' of system theory. It is based on Francis Bacon's 'middle axioms', useful in guiding empirical inquiries and serving as an intermediate theory, based on abstractions and empirical tests.

Bacon insistence that the impressions received by senses are fixe d in the memory is faulty, but he perceived that the cognitive processes are activated in the brain through sensory perception. Shera (1973) notes that information retrieval would be easier, if we would know what is going in patrons' mind.

In his search for the basic concepts in the philosophy of librarianship R. Staveley (1964) reviewed several philosophical viewpoints, among them the scientific humanism of Francis Bacon, which interrelated science as an instrument o f progress with humanities as a source of inspiration. This approach expected librarians to be interested in human communication, considering each individual as a unique person and to support popular education relevant to each individual need.

On the other hand, H.C. Wright (1979) argued that the 19th c. instrumental and utilitarian reasoning was based on Baconian scientific doctrine that knowledge is instrumental. This lead to the misunderstanding by librarians of the d istinction between library substance and its instruments, between physical data and metaphysical ideas, between knowing which is instrumental to experience and ideas in which experience is instrumental to knowledge.

J.E. Traue (1992) noted that 'we have moved on from Francis Bacon's view that the facts will speak for themselves that the careful accumulation of verifiable data will automatically reveal the great truth about nature, to a recognition that facts, informat ion, and data are all servants of ideas; without ideas we don't even know where to go looking for the facts; ideas effectively determine what we are going to regard as relevant facts' (Traue, 1992, p.33).

Throughout the history, changes in the library mission were not caused by librarians ignorance of their role in the society but by the changing meaning of concepts such as 'service'. Major such transformation took place during Industrial Revolution, changing the approa ch to social issues and shifting from the deductive to inductive methodology of Francis Bacon, advocating observation, collection of data and their inductive analysis (A. Robson, 1976).

Shera (1965) criticized Bacon's contributions to philosophy: (1) The problem of Bacon's classification of knowledge was its influence by Aristotle's approach and the notion that mind works in discrete compartments, memory is confined to history, and history is just a recall of facts and that reason and imagination are extreme notions. However his psychology is remarkable not because of its faults, but because it is a psychology at all. His doctrine of unity of knowledge introduced the notion of the systematic plan of organization. Till recently his tripartite division of knowledge into Memory, Imagination and Reason was unchallenged. (2) Bacon was not a scientist, he denied blood circulation, rejected Gilbert's work on magnetism and Copernican astronomy, and did not understand Gali leo - he was a lawyer, practical politician and man of letters, he created no new science but preached new philosophy of inductive science. He considered realities of the universe as self-contained whole, arguing that the phenomena (or instances) of the totality should be assembled, examined, weighted against each other and evaluated. He defined 'facts' as 'the unmasking the nature'. He criticized empty rationalism of Scholastic science by urging observation and experimentation.

Relevance :

P: A realist, Francis Bacon combined in a deductive process and

experimentation with observation.

L: Definitions of librarianship, library ethics, librarians'

idols and classification of knowledge based on Bacon's

philosophy (18 citations).

BACON, ROGER (c.1214 -1282)

Roger Bacon, English philosopher and scientist, was an advocate of Aristotelianism, and an author of the Opus majus, an encyclopedia of unified science. He was interested in linguistics, physical sciences (optics), mathematics, deductive application of principles and their experimental verification.

His writing was erratic and often naive and philosophically immature; his main contribution was less in original experimentation and more as a zealous advocate of science. His stress of the importance of language studies was based on the belief that all knowledge can be obtained from reading the Scripture.

Colin E. Cherry (1952) pointed out to Roger Bacon's philosophical contribution to the theory of communication of information by suggesting lodestone (a magnetite that possesses magnetic polarities) as a possible device for long distance communication and for introducing a bilateral code for e ach letter of the alphabet.

He defined knowledge in terms of what can be done rather than what hypotheses can be formulated (Shera, 1965).

Relevance :

P: A realist, naive Aristotelean and propagandist for science.

L: Notion of physical means for communication of data.

(2 citations)

BARFI ELD, ARTHUR OWEN (1898- )

Little known English scholarly writer, Barfield was interested in the relationships between poetry, science, philosophy and religion. His philosophy of knowledge can be described as the Romantic Transcendentalism. He maintains that the origin of language is mythical, immediate and external, and the knowledge is originally pre-logical, and unconscious. Since ancient Greek philosophy till contemporary empiricism, the process of consciousness i s over-intellectualized. Romanticism, through imagination, attempts to regain the understanding of the world, which in ancient times was perceived unconsciously (Menzel, 1972).

Transcendental philosophy is intuitive, concerned with the method of knowing rather than with the known objects. It opposes the assumptions of empirical and positivist philosophies that the only knowledge possible is through interpretation of the facts of nature.

Men zel attempts to apply Barfield's transcendental epistemology to the study of the nature of library science. By criticizing mechanical interpretations in natural science and librarianship, based on Descartes' matter-mind duality. Mentzel agrees with Shera's call for epistemological analysis of librarianship, but objects to his concept of 'management of knowledge' that relies on mechanical methodology of the positivistic philosophy. He also chastises Goldhor for misconstructing historical approach by depending on empirical methodology.

Relevance :

P: Transcendental epistemology viewed as a possible approach to

the study of library philosophy.

L: Criticism of empirical approach to librarianship. (1 citation)

BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham, a prominent leader of the English Utilit arian school of philosophy, was a nonpracticing lawyer, and leader of the political radical movement. Best known for his analysis of English legal system, and his Hedonistic Calculus based on the principle of greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Bentham advocated social, penal and legal reforms, defended individualism, and laissez-fair economic doctrine. He reduced human conduct to its ultimate motives of pleasure and pain. His ethics focused on the consequences of conduct, with virt ue defined in terms of prudence and benevolence.

Alistair Black (1991) traces the beginnings of the modern public library to the utilitarian principles of Jeremy Bentham and others, aiming at replacing the 19th century's elitism. Utilitarian empiricism stressed acquisition of knowledge through experience, emphasizing teleological, beneficial end-results that also applied to library services. D.E. Gerard (1978, 1983) notes that the liberal influences of Bentham and other utilitarians were not evident in the development of academic or special libraries. He also criticizes the extreme Benthamite view of Nikolas Rubakin for his statistical interpretation of readers behavior, thus overlooking the communicative relationships between the reader and the author.

H.C. Wright (1979) reproaches librarians for failing to distinguish between Bentham doctrine that knowledge is instrumental, and the metaphysical referent to ideas; experience is ins trumental to knowing and to communicating what is known, between the physical datum-as-symbol and the physical datum per se.

Shera (1972) considered Bentham's doctrine of 'the greatest good for the greatest number' as a goal that cannot be mathematically achieved.

Relevance :

P: Nominalism maintaining that in communication most words refer

to f ictitious entities and should be translated into

meaningful expressions that refer to real things.

L: Utilitarian motives in developing modern public library.

(5 citations)

BERGSON, HENRY (1859-1941)

This French philosopher of Anglo-Polish parentage, developed evolutionary, non-materialistic metaphysics. Evolution, although the basic fact of universe, by itself does not explain anything, it is merely a record of changes. It is caused by an original life force, elan vital, an intuitive efficient cause, directing the activities toward fulfilling their purposes. It is passed from one generation to another through the multidimensional development of individual organisms. Knowledge is a true explanation of material changes and evolution in nature. However, human activities are free from these mechanisms. Basic in them is duration rather than intuition , a specific experience, unique to each individual, expressed in consciousness, matter, time and evolution.

P. Peirce (1951) considers the change, interpreted in Bergson's sense, as the only enduring principle in library philosophy accounting for constant shifts in library functions and scope. This may bring library philosophy into the family of philosophical disciplines.

Relevance :

P: Monism: Elan vital (intuitive knowledge of duration) is the

primary aspect of change and evolution.

L: Elan vital as the philosophical explanation of changes in

librarianship. (1 citation)

BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685- 1753)

Berkeley, an Irish philosopher of English ancestry was an idealist, an immaterialist, who believed that reality consists o f spirits and ideas, and that its physical appearance, the matter, is non-existent, reducible to mental phenomena. In effect, existence means mental perception: 'esse est percipi' (to be is to be perceived). The knowledge of spirit is achieved not through ideas, the passive objects of sense knowledge, but by the active, reflective processes, called by him 'notions'.

Berkeley's focus on the importance of mind influencing perception and the processes of thought and its i mpact on the subjective, idealistic trends in education. B. C. Brookes (1980a) notes that information blends the monistic, Berkeleyan mental reality with the physical phenomena, thus relating to dualism of physical and mental worlds.

Berekely maintained that the experiences are directly related to the concrete objects; it is difficult, if even impossible to think without concepts tied to our experiences (K.J. McGarry, 1075). Berkeley also insisted that all qualitativ e properties are equally apparent (J.Z. Nitecki, 1988).

Relevance :

P: Pluralistic Idealist: nothing exists except mind (spirit) and

mental entities (ideas); existence make sense only in

reference to consciousness.

L: Study of the processes of thoughts and their impact on

education an d the nature of information. (3 citations)

BERLIN, ISAIAH

I. Berlin criticized the concept of historical inevitability, by stressing the notion of human responsibility which is incompatible with the deterministic notion of historical predestination. To him subject matter of history is value-charged since human beings are purposive and motivated creatures and not merely causal factors in the development of events. This implies a metaphys ical concept of holism of social phenomena considered as autonomous 'wholes', the impersonal entities.

D. Bergen (1980) borrowed Berlin's metaphor of 'fox' representing the pluralistic view in philosophy and 'hedgehog' delineating the position of monists, and applied them to Platonic synthesis and Aristotelean analyzes in the philosophy of librarianship. In criticizing M.H. Harris's historical revisionism, Bergen (1987) acknowledges the advantages of a 'hedgehog' like M arxist's large synthesis as one but not the only approach to view history, and hence he recommends a nonpartisan, open library approach to all ideologies.

Relevance :

P: Philosophy of history - criticism of historical

inevitability.

L: Non-partisan library approach to all ideologies.

(2 citations)

BERTALANFFY, LUDWIG VON (1901- )

A noted biologist, Bertalanffy was a founder of the Society for the Advancement of General Systems Theory. He envisaged a new, 'natural philosophy', which shifts from linear, unorganized complexity, based on statistical determination of chance outcomes to the issues of organized complexity, based on statistical regularities in socio-cultural systems such as cybernetics, information theory or computer science. The current c oncept of system approach involves (a) generalization of scientific concepts, (b) expansion of categories and models in theories about behavioral, biological and social universes, and (c) interdisciplinarity of system models based on isomorphism of their formal structures.

The new philosophy suggests integration and conceptual organization that parallel progressive specialization of modern science, initiating a number of new 'system sciences' such as general system theor y, cybernetics, information, decision and game theories. These approaches are either mechanistic, related to the technological issues, or organismic, searching for the principles and laws of organization. (Bertalanffy, 1967)

The General System Theory is a general science of 'wholeness', manifested in many branches of science (J.Z. Nitecki, 1970). "Its subject matter is formulation of principles that are valid for 'systems' in general, whatever the nature of their c omponent elements and the relations or 'forces' between them" (Bertalanffy, 1968, p.37 ). Its major aims are: integration of various sciences into a general theory of systems that aims at exact theory in the nonphysical sciences, 'vertical' development of unifying principles within sciences, and integration of scientific education (Ibid, p.38).

In education the system approach focuses on teacher effectiveness and student performance; a similar approach is evident in library management's struggle for cost-effectiveness of its operations.

D, Bergen (1965) discusses the implications of General Systems Theory for academic librarianship, by acquainting the library patron with the means by which the knowledge can be meaningfully organized. Important here is the interplay and mutual feedback between theoretical and empirical components of knowledge, which may have significant implications for the organization of information in libraries and for the restructuring bibliographic access to that information. General Systems approach can also be applied to the revision of library school curricula, incorporating variety of metaphysical and empirical viewpoints by using systems concepts as means for restructuring recorded knowledge. The impact of General Systems Theory on the philosophy of librarianship is also discussed by J.Z. Nitecki (1979).

Bertalanffy's scientific approach based on examining reality as a whole influenced library organization of knowledge and its management (J.A. Boon, 1991).

The librarian does not instruct the patrons what to read nor does he respond mechanically to their requests, but instead identifies all relevant interrelationships between corresponding subjects, structural similarities and differences between different fields. The systems' philosophical approach implies that librarianship is not a close system, an end in itself, but an open system within the context of its environment, dealing with concepts and structures common to the whole universe of knowledge (D.J. Foskett, 1972).

R. Mattessich (1982) considers system thinking as a point of view and a methodology based on it. He distinguishes between system philosophy (ontology, epistemology, methodology), system analysis (mathematical theories and systems models), empirical systems research (in behavior, laws and systems' simulation) and systems engineering (artificial systems). Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory clarifies and generalizes society's organizational systems.

H.C. Wright (1981) argues that Bertalanffy's system theory was not designed for formal disciplines like history or philosophy. It provided a logico-mathematical system for empirical disciplines. Information science is not concerned with information but with transfer of symbols, the design, production, implementation and control of the electronic syste ms. In this approach information which is the invisible structure of thought becomes an observable physical function of thought processes.

D.J. Foskett (1973) suggests that the principles of Bertalanffy's General System Theory may be used as the bases for new classification system that would embody the modern scientific and philosophical theories. G. Harmon (1973) sees in Bertalanffy's theory a support for a World Encyclopedias expressed in his unitary concepts based on the isomorphy of laws in different disciplines.

Bertalanffy's 'system theory' considers reality as a hierarchy of organized 'wholes', not as the world of physical particles governed by chance events of physical sciences. In social sciences there is an increased order of social complexity from individuals to societies, each entity contributing to a larger whole with retaining its own individuality - this can be a model for classification (K.J.McGarry, 1976).

Symbolic interactionism was recommended by Shera as an alternative to Systems Theory, because it focuses on communication with other minds through exchange of ideas, rather than just as a physical manipulation of data in the Systems Theory (H.C. Wright, 1984b).

Relevance :

P: General Systems philosophy considers reality as an organized

'whole' environment th at interrelates corresponding subjects

and structures as open systems.

L: System concept is useful in studying effectiveness in the

library management and organization of knowledge, organizing

bibliographic access to library records and providing

integrating base in library education curricula.

(11 citations)

BOHM, DAVID

In 1950's David Bohm argued that any 'proof' in the contemporary quantum theory, cannot preclude formulations of other rules that might have entirely different impact on the present limitations of that theory.

Bohm considered space as a plenum (full) rather than a vacuum (empty), and calculated possible value for the background energy of space, based on the idea of the infinite substructure of matt er, extending far beyond nuclear energy. His concept of 'wholeness' refers to viewing everything as a whole, and considering fragmentation of the world into parts as a futile analysis.

In 'the implicated order' every element contains enfolded within itself the totality of the universe, including both matter and consciousness. Both these notions refer to the entire universe and all information within it is enfolded into different regions of space, similarly to the hologr am storing information at all location of the photographic plate (Young, 1987).

D. Beagle (1988) refers to Bohm's model of the holomovement which addresses the fragmentation of research in a multidimensional, immeasurable and undefinable reality. In his new paradigm that underlines wholeness, the 'implicate order of the holomovement' can be utilized as a potential context for theory building in library science. Knowledge is an organic whole, a self-ordering process, co mparable to the growth of life itself. Here order balances disintegrating physical force of entropy by negentropic metaphysical universe of human knowledge. Beagle illustrates the distinction between Bohm's implicate order and mechanistic world-view by differentiating between mechanistic definition of books as individual physical units (volumes) and their titles which exist in the context of the abstract aggregates, one title citing another - together volumes and titles represent the totality of kno wledge.

"Under the contextual world-view ... libraries are not some negentropic aberration from a fundamental law of cosmic disintegration, but rather are an expression of an integrated law of underlying order ... certain characteristics like the implicate order may be abstracted from it and seen in a variety of phenomena, including libraries" (D. Beagle, 1988, p. 43).

Relevance :

P: Knowledge is defined as an organic whole, a self-ordering

process

L: In opposition to the mechanistic interpretation of

librarianship, the Implicate Order of the holomovement is

suggested as a context of library theory. (3 citations)

BUBER, MARTIN (1878-1965)

Austrian relig ious existential philosopher who contrasted and analyzed the mutual relationship between the 'I-Thou' (genuine personal relation) with the 'I- It' (partial relationship with the inanimate thing) attitudes. There is a difference between relating to an observed thing or an object and to a person involved in a conversation.

R.C. Benge (1972), followed Bubber's discussion of the nature of identity in a true communion as the 'most important type of communication' and wrote a book based on the existential attitude 'empty of philosophical content'. To Benge the essence of 'I-Thou' relationship, of communication rests on the 'betweenness' in the middle of that relation. L. Estabrook (1973) interprets Bubber's thesis as a study of interaction between knowledge and society based on Shera's social epistemology, that study the nature of intellectual processes in a society achieving perceptive relationships with its total environment.

Re levance:

P: Interaction between society and knowledge.

L: Existential analyses of bibliothecal communication

environment. (2 citations)

CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Scottish essayist and philosopher of culture, supporter of German idealism in ethics, politics and economics. In philosophy he followed Kantian distinction between p henomena (as things appear) and noumena (as they actually exist apart from their appearance). He also defined the notion of the true university (Shera, 1965).

Quoting Carlyle that 'the modern university is a library of books', John Adams (1931) argues that librarian is a book specialist, concentrating on book knowledge rather than their content, instructing the patrons about the reading choices and, if needed, serving as a spoon-feeding provider of reading.

Carlyle's notion of the role of book as a preserver of culture, was one of the major influence in shaping the viewpoint of Librarian of Congress, Henry Putnam (C.J. Krieg, 1970).

Relevance :

P: Philosophy of culture: criticism of materialistic industrial

society.

Philosophy of history: history considered as a cyclical and

progressive unfolding of human capabilities.

L: Definition of the university as library and of the book as the

preservers of culture. (3 citations)

CHOMSKY, NOAM

Of particular interest to the philosophy of language is Chomsky's 'generative' or 'transformational' grammar, which differs basically from the modern descriptive linguistics by focusing on expla nation rather than description of language.

A contributing factor in Chomsky's approach was mathematical understanding of the processes of infinitive use of limited language.

In the study of the language interchangeability, Chomsky pointed out to the importance of linguistic environment, which however by itself cannot serve as an adequate grammar of natural language.

N.J. Belkin and A.Vickery (1985) considered Chomsky's syntax and language competence as one of the important components of understanding conversation. D.J. Foskett (1970) reviewed Chomsky's rules for explaining the differences between sentences of the same grammatical form in his 'transformational grammar'.

That idea suggests the existence of 'deep structures', the syntactical forms that are transformed in everyone's speech into the syntax of their language. Those structures are based on innate relations, which are neither learned nor acquired by experience (D.A. Kemp, 1976).

The theory of transformational grammar was the first attempt to link language with mind. To bring order in the world, human mind needs a principle of inference, which cannot be logically deducted from facts derived from experience alone but must precede it. There are innate properties of the mind that make possible the acquisition of knowledge and belief, at the same time determining its limits and scope. De ep-seated abstract principles, general in nature, determine the form and interpretation of sentences and rules of grammar that make visible the properties of human mind (Shera, 1972).

Chomsky's recognition of an infinite number of writing-systems in any language made an approach to syntax more realistic (J. Mountford, 1973).

Relevance :

P: Philosophy of language: innate propert ies of the mind govern

the acquisition of knowledge.

L: Understanding conversation by studying linguistic structures of language. (5 citations)

COMTE, AUGUSTE (1798-1857)

Comte was French eclectic philosopher, who applied scientific principles to the study of society. He revolted against traditional metaphysics, proposing instead philosophy of history, which consists of three inte llectual and cultural stages of development: (1) theological (in primitive culture reality was interpreted by superstitions and prejudices), (2) metaphysical (explanation is given in terms of impersonal forces and general concepts, unsupported by reasoned facts about reality) and (3) positive philosophy (in which dogmatic assumptions are replaced by observed relationships and their mathematical correlations).

Although not a pragmatist, he influenced pragmatists and behav iorists by suggesting the use of science in solving social problems.

Interested in sociology, he interpreted society in terms of social statics (social equilibrium) and social dynamics (social progress). Social statics depends on the balance between selfish and altruistic attitudes of individuals; social dynamics develops from the militarism through juridical to industrial society.

In his discussion of the limited role of specialization i n librarianship, A. Broadfield (1949) criticizes Comte for confusing knowledge with what it is; the hierarchy in science proposed by Comte does not equal that in nature; any classification is justified only for the special, restricted purposes.

On the other hand, J.P. Danton (1973) recognizes Comte as one of the predecessors of comparative studies and comparative librarianship. Comte's argument for scientific principles in the study of society contributed to the reco gnition of racial, climatic and political differences between cultures by comparing different stages in the development of human society.

M.Glossop (1978) raises an epistemological question concerning the nature of subjective knowledge about librarianship. His own approach is based on phenomenological philosophy, which opposes Comte's positivism for subjecting all phenomena to invariable natural laws.

Comte disparaged all speculative kno wledge as metaphysics, insisting that the true knowledge or science be confined to the study of nature or of human nature (Shera, 1972).

He defined the fundamental order of knowledge as a decreasing generality and increased complexity, coincidental with historical development. He also raised the importance of social science by maintaining that its methodology does not differs much from other disciplines. For this view he is considered the father of Sociology. Comte reco gnized three stages of intellectual advance: theological, metaphysical and scientific; each is important antecedent of the others. His views influenced the pattern, structure and conceptualization in classification (Shera, ibid).

Relevance :

P: An evolutionist: Philosophy of history developed through

theological, metaphysical and positive philosophy.

Philosophy of social sciences: Society defined in terms of

social equilibrium and social progress.

Positivism: Rejection of metaphysics and reliance on science

Relationship between nature of subjective knowledge and

philosophy of library information science.

L: Application, with reservation, of Comte's classification of

knowledge to library classification. (4 citations)

DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)

Darwin was the author of the evolutionary, biological theory of natural selection and subsidiary doctrine of sexual selection. Darwinian social theory of society is based on the struggle for existence, characterized by egoism, competition and power supremacy. Social selection follows natural selection. In ethics 'might makes right', although D arwin also maintained that sympathy and mutual support, together with supportive language, are favorable for survival and can be used as criteria in judging human activities.

His impact on the philosophy of pragmatism was in his empirical proof of a cosmological theory that nature's operations are in a form of developmental processes. This approach opposes Platonic concept of essence and universals, stressing gradual Becoming, (not the absolute Being), and considering reality as an open-ended process with no fixed end. But probably the most original contribution of Darwin is by interrelating his empirical data in a coherent, comprehensive, logical system. It is a theory of 'pangenesis', transmission of hereditary characteristics (Young, 1987).

Darwin was one of the first people to treat emotional communication in a systematic way, expressed among others by facial expressions - issue of value to reference librarians (K.J. McGarry, 197 5). He regarded poetry and music as 'intellectual knowledge', basic in the sense that if lost, they would be injurious to the intellect (F.Machlup, 1980).

The work of Darwin revolutionized the scholarship, bringing drastic change in man's knowledge of himself and his place in the universe. His approach was thoroughly based on research, his mind working as a machine grinding general laws out of large collection of facts (Shera, 1972). His interpretation of research consists of analysis (similar to an artist dividing a problem into parts) and syntheses (an artist puts it together) (Shera, 1976).

Functional equivalence between biotic and organizational systems is described by A.J. Fedanzo (1986) in terms of Darwinian evolution. Organizational genetics, based on this theory, offers a synthetic view of human activities, and of change provoking forces.

Computerized data management provides for an insight into the organizational data model in which information structure contains the form, the content and procedural rules for data handling and processing. Fedanzo (ibid.) maintains that genetic material in organisms and the content of data model are functionally equivalent; both are basically information structures that direct the ontogenesis and behavior within each system. Here, information is equivalent to genetic material, which, among other functions, provides information that is needed for preserv ing generational continuity. Data model contains information necessary for replication of basic organizational structures and for description of organizational history and operations of an organization. In information theory Darwinian selection describes a creative process of positive feedback, supporting or suppressing negative feedback in the random selection of information processes.

Pansegrouw, J.G. (1988) compares Darwinian theory of natural selection with Piaget's theory of information-seeking behavior. He prefers the Piaget theory for its focus on cognitive structure, and criticizes library information science for accepting Darwinian model, overlooking its ambiguity in not accounting for intellectual freedom within the concept of social responsibility.

L.B. Heilprin (1991) in his discussion of necessary and sufficient conditions for survival of librarianship refers to Darwin's observation that species with variations are bette r equipped for changing environment. Thus, animals with nervous-brain systems impose mental design on a material object; and man survives more by changing his environment than by changing his body (i.e., the concept of 'artificial evolution' that shifts from Darwin's 'decent' to Bronowski's 'ascent'). Heilprin lists research on the fundamental processes in transmitting recorded knowledge as one of the essential functions of information science.

Helmut Arnts (1983) in his 'palaeology of information' stresses the desire for 'being informed' as a necessary aspect of survival that is evident in a process of acquisition, storage and conceptualization of information. This, he claims, counterbalances natural law of Darwinian selection.

M. L. Blake (1985) sees a converse of Darwinian evolution in the fact that today's fitness depends on information technology. It is a 'cultural evolution in space through competition for time' (Ibid., p.125) .

Attempts are made in contemporary literature to update Darwinian approach by suggesting a notion of 'survival of the wisest'. In it, 'wisdom' is considered an equilibrium between metabiological acting of individual aggressiveness and passivity and his desire to conquest and coexist, both bound in individuals' metaphoric mind (Salk in J.Z. Nitecki, 1988).Scientists are still trying to complete the pattern in classification of species started by Darwin. Among the librar y classification systems, the strongest Darwin's influence was on James D. Brown's system based on the notion that every science or art springs from some definite source: first there were matter and force that gave the rise to life, which in time produced mind, ending in the production of information records. Others influenced by Darwin were: Cutter (principle of expansion), Melvil Dewey's and Library of Congress classifications. Overall, library classification system was born in the 18th c. and mat ured in the 19th c. Darwinism as a process was suggested as possible library research methodology (Shera, 1965).

Relevance :

P: Evolutionism: Theory of biological development through natural

selection and social struggle for survival.

L: Importance of variation in changing library environment.

(12 citations)

DEMOCRITUS OF ABDERA (c.460 BC- 370 BC)

The materialist philosopher, Democritus explained the universe in mechanistic terms. He maintained that all substances consist of invisible and indivisible atoms. Their forms determine the material qualities, the finest of them constitute the substance of mind. In perception, tiny copies of sensible things (eidola) impact mind's atoms, leaving impressions in memory. Living in the realm of appearance, people should aim at maximizing their happiness.

Aristotle considered Leucippus, the contemporary of Democritus, as the founder of atomism, crediting Democritus for developing the supportive epistemology and detailed application for that theory.

H.C. Wright (1986) briefly reviewed the history of philosophy in terms of everlasting struggle between physical and spiritual (formal) viewpoints, initiated by an early Greek distinction between Being ( Parmenides totality of existence) and Becoming (Aristotelean movement or change). Leucippus and Democritus combined atomic model of matter with physical atoms moving freely in space, their combinations differing quantitatively. Other scholars suggest that Leucippus and Democritus replaced Parmenides monism with the materialistic concept of change, which presupposes the Non-Being (not the Being) and substituting the notion of space continuity by its discontinuity, the foundation of atomic structure o f substance.

Relevance :

P: Materialistic view of universe as a mechanistic structure.

L: Mechanistic interpretation of library purposes and operations.

(1 citation)

DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes, a French rationalist is considered one of the fathers of modern philosophy. His app roach, called Cartesian philosophy, was based on the process of doubting any ideas that would not satisfy his criteria of clearness and distinctness.

His method was rationalistic and geometrical, his goal the reconstruction of the knowledge by the application of a rational, deductive system.

Descartes distinguished three self-evident kinds of ideas: (1) innate, expressing the power of the thought, (2) adventitious, coming from the extern al world, and (3) factitious, created within individuals' own mind. He also identified three kinds of substance: (a) created by God souls of each individual, (b) All-Good, All-Powerful spirit and final cause (God), and

(c) independent of human thoughts, physical substances (body). To him, the first reality is the intuitive notion of thinking itself (cogito ergo sum).

Descartes major influence on modern philosophy was his dualistic separatio n of idealistic concept of mind (the human mind contemplating the ultimate reality of ideas) from materialistic, mechanistic notion of matter (characterized by divisibility and laws of motion, interpreted in mathematical language).

He considered form as a Platonic and Aristotelean concept of abstract, nonphysical, metaphysical entity. His effort to unify the mind-body dualism met with strong cultural opposition (Young, 1987).

J.P. Me nzel (1972) criticized this matter-mind duality as a base for the contemporary mechanical interpretations in natural sciences and in librarianship.

Colin E. Cherry (1952) lists Descartes among the philosophers who contributed to the communication of information by his compression of mathematical information and his anticipation of an artificial language and a computing machine.

A. Robson (1976) considers Baconian challenge of traditional De scartian deductive philosophy as a major factor in the intellectual and philosophical bases for Industrial Revolution, and its consequent impact on the social role of librarianship.

F. Suppe (1985) argues for the neutral language, free of communication noises, by expanding the concept of the communication channel to include the recipient's cognitive and neurological processes. According to Descarte and Locke's postulates, the end product of perception in these processes is free of noise.

In discussing historical background for the development of the concept of automata in cybernetics, M. Eden (1983) considers Descartes' mechanistic view in which all functions of the machine are interpreted as imitations of real human being, as automatons that follow the principles of movement.

Descartes often used mechanical analogies in describing the work of an organism (G.Harmon, 1973). He maintained that 'any knowle dge that can be questioned ought not to be called science' (F. Machlup, 1980).

Although 'I think therefore I am' can be ridiculed by saying 'I think I think; therefore; I think I am' (Ambrose Bierce), his dictum stresses that the power of thinking is a distinctive characteristic of human capacity to generalize and to reason (Shera, 1976).

Relevance :

P: Dualist: Separation of the idealistic concept of mind and

materialistic, mechanical notion of matter.

Rationalist: Emphases on the power of human thought.

L: Anticipation of the theory of information and cybernetics.

(9 citations)

DEWEY, JOHN (1859-1952)

As a major American philosopher and father of experimental, instrumental pragmatism, Dewey influenced many fields of philosophy and education. His pragmatism is a theory of meaning and truth (hypotheses that works), presented as a body of flexible doctrines. His experimentalism refers to the process of inquiry, the testing of ideas to eliminate pseudo problems. Operationalism is a form of predictions formulated as 'if-then' propositions; if the operation is carried out, given proposition has a meaning, and if the prediction of its consequences is realized, that proposition is true and has 'warranted assertibility' or probability. Dewey's instrumentalism relates to his earlier evolutionary philosophy influenced by biological rather than physical or social sciences.

Dewey considered life as a movement, a process of continuous reconstruction in thoughts and in practical activities. The issues and problems change with time and are solved or outgrown by other issues. The processes of issue-solving consist of clarification, search for alternative solutions, evaluated by their consequences and checked by immediate experience. The quest for certainty is futile because of its endlessness; thinking (solving problems) is only one of many functions in life, an instrument for living, not an end in itself. Logic is a methodology aiming at the discovery of truth.

Dewey maintained that relationships between an individual and society must be balanced ('transactional interrelationship') through democratic and educative social condition s. Individuality is 'the interplay of personal choices and freedom with objective conditions'. Sociality is a medium conductive to individual development.

The philosophy of education is the formation of ideas about an environment appropriate for addressing contemporary problems. It recognized the psychological characteristics of an individual and sociological needs of the society. Together they are directed toward freeing and facilitating the growth, by expanding the capacity to learn from experience (an 'end in view'). "The outcome, the abstract to which education is to proceed, is the interest in intellectual matters for their own sake, a delight in thinking for the sake of thinking" (J. Dewey in J.Z. Nitecki, 1988).

- Major contributions;

Dewey's major contributions include: (1) in logic a naturalistic explanation of pragmatism; (2) in methodology scientific method applied to all types of inqu iry; (3) in ethics use of quantitative standards of ethical evaluation; (4) in religion an opposition to all dogmatism and consideration of good as a unified ideal; (5) in education the importance of the student; (6) in art its integration in life, a progressive discipline; (7) in biology evolutional philosophy; (8) in social philosophy rejection of authoritarianism; (9) in politics pluralism, rejecting government power and advocating cooperation; and (10) his instrumentalism stressed change vs. st atus quo.

(a) Thinking/reasoning processes.

Dewey said that "thinking is a reconstructive movement of actual contents of experience in relation to each other." That is, the awareness of one's past is for an individual an essential part of the reasoning, the thinking (Shera, 1973).

In the production and enjoyment of poetic perception knowledge is transformed, it becomes more than knowledge because it me rges with nonintellectual elements, forming experience worth experiencing (F. Machlup, 1980).

(b) Learning processes.

Dewey proposed a theory that 'language, signs and significance come into existence, not by intend and mind, but by overflow'. We cannot explain satisfactorily how vocal articulation dissociates itself from their original expressive values and are stereotyped into conventional symbolic pattern with consistent and universal meani ng. His educational philosophy is a reaction against domination of print in the education of the child based on traditional educational curriculum. To him education is a problem solving experience, preparing individual to new challenges. He advocated including in the curriculum everything that may help solves the problems. This approach was reborn during students' revolution of late 1960's. Dewey's educational philosophy focused on the process of learning, continuity of experience and institutionali zation of universities with the departmental focus of power. The full truth can never be known since knowledge requires constant revision of approaches (Shera, 1972).

(c) Interpretation of science.

According to Dewey the source of human science is as wide as knowledge itself. His definition of science as a methodology or a thought process rather than a specific subject was the stimulus for considering librarianship as an applied science, using findings of many other disciplines. However, since little of the research was so far done, the profession is not yet a science. The empirical thinking, according to Dewey, cannot discriminate between correct and incorrect conclusions and have little capacity to deal with a new situation. Dewey's definition of science was accepted by Waples in his approach to librarianship as an interdisciplinary field; but also criticized by Thompson for its supposedly narrow conception of systematic method of inqu iry' and 'facts' thus weakening librarians' appreciation of books and people (S. Karetzky, 1982).

(d) Philosophy of a profession.

Dewey maintained that knowledge is classification; it is not just an awareness of events but of events-with-meaning. Cognition is recognition, hence likeness (a relation) rather than existence is central. Having meaning is a prerequisite of knowing. The paradox in professional education is to reconcile John Dewey's pragmatism with Cardinal Newman self-sufficient search for intellectual excellence (C.H.Rawski, 1973).

Dewey's principle of autonomy of inquiry implies its interdisciplinarity; it is not incompatible with the mature interdependency of different disciplines (Ibid.).

Helen E. Haines (1946) argues that every profession is characterized by having a discipline (a system of training), ethics (rules of conduct and moral obligations) and philosoph y (a vision). Such a philosophy is personal, based on one's own thoughts and experiences. "Life without it" - she quotes John Dewey - "must be a different sort of think from life with it. And the difference which it makes must be in us" (p.851).

(e) On philosophy of librarianship.

J. Bekker (1976) quotes Dewey's definition of philosophy as applicable to the philosophy of librarianship: philosophy as the theory of a subject- matter as a whole or as organized unity, containing some binding principles and harmony between theory and practice.

Cyril O. Houle (1946) defines librarianship as a unique discipline based on Dewey's pragmatical philosophy of education as a process that aims at change of people's skill, knowledge, attitudes and understanding, allowing them to formulate their own suitable social and personal goals. Good educational experiences must be based on a continuous interaction between library patrons' personal needs and purposes and the goals of the community served by the library.

Houle (1946a) argues in the spirit of Dewey's pragmatism that such a philosophy of librarianship must be practical, normative, not theoretical or descriptive and meaningful only in terms of its operations. Its objectives are educational, informational and aesthetic. Similar view is expressed by Iben (1936) who argues for the philosophy of librarianship based on De wey's educational theory. Dewey's philosophy of 'learning by doing' was advocated by Douglas Waples, who, like Dewey, was concerned more about learning as a process of new discoveries than as assimilation of old theories (Ch.I. Terbille (1992).

A. D. Carlson (1990) notes that basic in Dewey's philosophy is the concept of experience as 'learning by doing', defined as a cooperation between an individual and his or her environment. This philosophy is relevant to library edu cation by relating library teachers personal experiences and philosophy to their method of teaching. Since the interpretation of human needs is always an abstraction of concrete experiences, J. Dewey, the pragmatist, advocated intellectual approach to practical reality, liberalizing practitioners' intellectual horizons, at the same time advising intellectuals to apply their intellectualism to practical ends (J.Z. Nitecki, 1988).

(e) Instrumental uses of libraries.

In his discussion of the 19th century 'instrumental' use of libraries, V. Jelin (1970) distinguishes between his use of the term 'instrumental' from that of Dewey. First he differentiates between the existential, humanistic emphases on the input (acquisition, organization and preservation of library material, i.e., the input, programming and storage respectively) and the 'instrumental', scientific and technological output (aiming at solution of concrete problems and exploration of unknown needs of library patrons). Both approaches are meaningful sociologically, each reflects the particular intellectual needs of the society. However, the meaning of the term 'instrumental' is here restricted to industrial libraries that support specific needs of their organizations. Dewey's instrumentality refers to the character of thoughts or information, which is instrumental, if it resolves conflicts. Hence it is not just a static mode of knowledge, but a dynamic aspect of integrated, ef ficient thoughts, based on logical and epistemological principles.

Relevance :

P: Pragmatic theory of meaning and truth; experimental processes

of inquiry; operational 'if-then' propositions; instrumental

evaluation of ideas in terms of their usefulness in explaining

changes and satisfying needs and purposes.

L: Instrumental use of libraries in resolving intellectual and

practical issues. (15 citations)

DURKHEIM, EMILE (1858-1917)

A French philosopher representing sociological positivism, Durkheim emphasized collective consciousness expressed in impersonal, non-subjective group mind, superior to human mind. He rejected absolute metaphysical or theological presuppositions. Social values a nd moral ideas are the reflections of the individual community; since no two communities are the same, their moral and ethical standards of goodness or beauty differs.

Durkheim was interested in the psychological effect of social change on individual, which in turn impacts on the personal and impersonal relations in communication (K.J. McGarry, 1975).

H.C. Wright (1982) objected to the philosophy of librarianship based on Durkheim's cont ention that the laws of society do not differ from these governing nature and that the methods used to discover them are identical with the methods of other sciences.

Relevance :

P: Positivistic notion of collective consciousness, and impact of

social changes on individuals and communication.

L: Objections to library philosophy that is based o n similarity

between natural and social laws. (2 citations)

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790)

An America politician whose philosophy was based on relevance of traditional values and Aristotelean belief in government social role. Franklin was a scientist involved in scientific experimentation with electricity, deist and moralist, popular not only in United States but also among contemporary European philosophe rs. His aphorisms expressed the philosophy of life for many people, advocating the conduct that would make possible a prosperous and meaningful life by following earthly virtues of thrift, hard work, diligence, prudence, moderation, honesty and shrewdness.

Franklin believed in individual initiative as a necessary 'engine of progress' with government based on citizens consent. "His essential faith was that, from tradesmen's juntas to the court of Versailles, good me n working together could improve the condition of mankind" (The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 1967, vol.3, pp.220-221). The 18th century social library of Benjamin Franklin lead to the establishment of a free public library in the next century (J. Cushman, 1960).

Shera discussed Franklin's organizations aimed at self-education by providing forum for discussion of discoveries resulting from observations, experimentation and debates about theories and philosophies (She ra, 1949).

His social libraries were the only institutions attempting to meet popular demand for books for nearly a century (J.Thompson, 1977).

Relevance :

P: Political philosophy defining social roles of the government.

L: Free library as a model for American Public library system

offering self-e ducational opportunities. (3 citations)

FREUD, SIGMUNT (1856-1939)

Founder of the Psycho-analytic school, Freud focused on the interpretation of neuroses by applying free association, dream interpretation, and hypnotic method of treatment. His psychological theory was based on the predominance of sex, conflicts and repressions, the influence of infantile period and their impact on subconsciousness of forgotten memories and suppressed de sires. Freud's theory had major influence on the 20th century popular culture, religion and ethics.

R.J. Howard (1982) discussed the impact of Freud's symbol-deciphering method on Marxism.

Relevance:

P: Psychological theory of subconsciousness, sexual drives and

psycho-analytical methodology of free association with

subconsciou s minds as a repository for the suppressed

thoughts.

L: Major impact on the 20th century popular culture and its records. (1 citation)

GALILEO, GALILEI (1564-1642)

An outstanding scientist and major inventor of his day, Galileo's philosophical contribution was in developing a scientific description of the universe based on the mathematical interpretation of the structures and o perations of the physical world verified by empirical observations. He liberated science from theological support of Ptolemean astronomy and Aristotelian concept of 'facts of reason' by developing 'facts of empirical research'. M. De Mey (1984) pointed out to the significance of grasping the dynamics of simple conversations, such as Galilean dialogues, in the discourse between the librarians and their patrons.

Galileo aphorism, 'the book of nature is written in ch aracters of Geometry' implied that modern science is based on the notion that all laws are mathematical in nature (Young, 1987).The attitude of Church toward Galileo illustrated probably the first attempt to control the dissemination of scientific knowledge. Galileo's writing in vernacular Italian language made his ideas popular, placing the Church authority at risk (D.A. Kemp, 1976).

Relevance :

P: Philosop hy of science describing universe in mathematical

terms, verified by empirical observations and substituted

Aristotelean 'facts of reason' by 'facts of empirical

research'.

L: Example of censoring dissemination of scientific knowledge by society and church. (3 citations)

GANDHI, MAHATMA (1869-1948)

A major represen tative of modern Hinduism, Gandhi was defending the truth of all religions and claimed that Hinduism provides the most satisfactory synthesis of all religious philosophies. As a reformer, he addressed traditional biases against untouchability and class divisions. He offered himself as an example of proper interpretation of the ancient Indian concept of ahimsa, the teaching of nonviolence. His impact on the contemporary political and social philosophy was extensive.

R. L. Mittal (1969) considers Gandhi a pragmatic democrat, who strongly believed that knowledge is above religion, cast, creed, race or nationality. In one of his speeches, in 1933, Gandhi identified a number of principles for the organization and administration of libraries. Their essence is that everybody, especially poor person, should be given free and adequate library service.

Relevance :

P: In philosophy of religion knowledge is above religion.

L: Provision of free and adequate access to libraries by everyone. (1 citation)

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

German poet and scientist, interested in occult philosophy and religious mysticism. Not a systematic philosopher, Goethe adapted in his writings these aspects of philosophy that best fitted his literary expressions of feelings and intuition. Thus he w as interested in Spinoza's determinism and non-theological philosophy but replaced his mathematical method by own imagination and intuition. Goethe's mystical interpretation of nature was akin to Schelling's philosophy, and his view of animated nature and optimism resembled Leibniz's monadology. He applauded Kantian notion that art mediates between nature and freedom, but objected to Kant's interpretation of knowledge in terms of reason, understanding and sensibility, preferring his own reliance on i magination and intellectual intuition.

F. Grasberger (1952) favors Goethe's model of librarianship, in which routine library administrative tasks are the prerequisites to the more professional, intellectual activities. Young (1987) quotes Goethe's motto, 'Connect, only connect'.

Relevance :

P: Idealistic occult philosophy and religion stressing primary

role of intellectual intuition in understanding reality.

L: Library routine administrative tasks are prerequisites for

intellectual activities. (2 citations)

HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757)

An English physician, Hartley was a founder of the associationist school in psychology. This approach is based on connections between different a spects of sensations in consciousness, especially the natural, single, simultaneous associations and acquired, reinstated, successive ideas.

C.E. Cherry (1952) refers to Hartley's contribution to the communication theory by defining information as the successive selection of symbols and by rejecting the concept of 'meaning' as a subjective factor.

Relevance :

P: Association psychology focusing on connections among ideas in

consciousness and assuming that all mental states consist of

unique, simple and irreducible elements.

L: Information is defined as a successive selection of symbols in communication. (1 citation)

HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Major philosophical themes of this Ge rman modern idealist were: (a) the concepts of real and rational are complementary, evolving processes, (b) universal, rational will (mind) interrelates in a logical system all basic principles of morality, law, ethics and social institutions, (c) logic is identified with metaphysics, (d) organization and changing events are the sources of values, (e) freedom and liberty are integral part of orderly set of events, (f) the doctrine (an expression of the method) and the method (dialectic formulation of the doctrine) are logically inseparable.

Hegel system consisted of three major elements: logic, nature and spirit. In logic (interpreted as change, development and movement) the triadic dialectic consists of the theses, antithesis and synthesis and is possible only within factual systems; contradictions cannot be resolved by dialectics because they are abstract concepts. Nature is the opposite of Idea, reflecting the difference between value and facts; both are int errelated in the final synthesis. The final stage is the Absolute Spirit, its manifestations are evident in the historical development of culture, aiming at completion and wholeness. In this process history develops in a dialectical, rational manner.

Hegelian notion of reality as the categories of mind interprets knowledge as the intuitive connection between sense-experiences and abstract ideas about them. It is the expression of conceptual tradition in philosophy as wel l as an essential aspect of conceptual level of metalibrarianship (J.Z. Nitecki, 1968).

The function of philosophy is to understand the reason in the universe. Thinking is an inductive process of interrelations, knowledge is the system of concepts, and the truth is the never fully understood totality.

In education, Hegel maintained that everybody must go through the stages of cultural evolution, learning from the past how to understand heri tage and its process.

J. M. Whitehead's (1980) humanistic method resembles, to some degree, Hegelian dialectical philosophy. He beliefs that philosophy can be done only by doing it, and similarly, the philosophy of library and information science cannot be defined, but it can be done. Whitehead accepts the principle that the meaning of experience is reason and the meaning of reason is experience.

Major weakness of Hegelian philosophy is its g lorification of the state's mythical mission at the expense of an individual.

E.E. Graziano (1955) pointed out to the Hegelian impact on the subject classification, based on his logic and metaphysical theory of reality and knowledge. In his 1975 essay Graziano posed a number of questions about the meaning of major library concepts based on the Hegelian notion that all fundamental issues are related to the definition of the identity as the entity under consideration. Sin ce questions such as 'what is the book, a library or information science', cannot be answered within the language-operational convention; Graziano calls for a reexamination of the fundamental premises of library science based on language-operational Gestalt.

Hegel's classificatory schematism considered the whole of reality as the Absolute Idea, of which all concepts, phenomena and sciences were part. He achieved that synthesis and unity based on the metaphysical rather than natural and empirical approach (Shera, 1965).

Hegel viewed history as a manifestation of the dialectical movement of the World Spirit (K.J. McGarry, 1975).

R. Capurro (1991) defined information science as a rhetorical discipline, based on Hegelian formal-methodological and cultural-historical philosophy.

D. Bergen (1987) in his reproach of Michael Harris dogmatic approach to the philosophy of librarian ship, is critical of Hegelian indirect influence on Harris' formulation of library theory. Harris argument, Bergen claims, is based on Hegelian Marxist opposition to pluralism. It is reflected in the library neutrality toward group interests, and to positivist epistemology, responsible for librarians apolitical attitude, justified by the concept of intellectual freedom.

Relevance :

P: Idealist view of reali ty as a living, evolving process defined

by dialectical processes.

L: Impact of Hegelian philosophy on the subject classification

based on his logic and metaphysical theory of reality and

knowledge. (8 citations)

HEIDEGGER, MARTIN (1889-1976)

A student of Husserl's structural analysis of pure consciousness, Heidegge r proposed new, existential approach to philosophy by providing phenomenological analysis of human existence in its temporal and historical context. He embraced idealistic philosophy of man as a creative worker, and considered consciousness as 'concern' about or 'dread' of the world. He analyzed the conceptual meanings of individual phenomena independent of the problems of reality and knowledge.

Two books reviewed by librarians are critical of the influence of Heidegger 's philosophy. S.L. Fesenmaier (1988) strongly objects to Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind theses, by calling Bloom 'the American 10th rate Heidegger'. Patrick Wilson (1994) equally strongly criticized M. Heim's The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality (1993), which discusses Heidegger's view on technology, by referring to his concepts of finitude, temporality, and care. To Wilson, Heim's philosophical references are ornamental, anachronistic and hyperbolic, presented in the 'p op philosopher' style.

Relevance :

P: Phenomenological analysis of human existence in its temporal

and historical context.

Existential need for 'destructive' analysis of traditional

philosophy in order to regain the insight into metaphysical

reality.

L: Exist ential approach to philosophy of librarianship.

(3 citations)

HERACLITUS OF EPHESUS (ca 536-470 BC)

Heraclitus, 'the philosopher of change', maintained that everything is in a constant flux; nothing is, only change itself ('Logos') is real. 'All things flow, nothing abides. Into the same river one cannot step twice'. Everything is in a process of continuous passing away, and only the orderliness of the succession of things remains the same. The moral ideal is the rule of reason.

Heraclitus represented sensualist position that all is being, and everything except change is illusion (H.C. Wright, 1986).

His remark that 'one cannot step into the same river twice' points to the irreversible aspect of communication (J.K.McGarry, 1976).

Relevance :

P: Rationalistic view that there is no one permanent reality,

everything is changeable.

L: Irreversibility of communication. (2 citations)

HOBBES, Thomas (1588-1679)

Hobbes held that form is a wholly physical or material phenomenon.

Hobbes followed Bacon in distinguishing historical and descriptive knowledge from the theoretical and philosophical. He carried the principle of binary division, and was the first to approach the order of modern science (Shera, 1965).

Relevance :

P: Materialistic view of humans as machines.

L: The principle of binary division. (1 citation)

HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)

At one time a librarian, Hume was famous for his quest ioning of many rationalistic assumptions and criticism of Idealism. An Empiricist, he focused on the sensory content of experience, reducing it to irreducible impressions of senses and their images, the ideas. There is no mind, only series of interrelated perceptions, 'the bundle of impressions and ideas', interrelated in memory system by resemblance, causality and succession. Thus, knowledge is created by a comparison of ideas, based on intrinsic resemblance between them. Explanation is considered in terms of Aritotelean association of ideas by similarity and by contiguity. No facts can be proven a priori; existence is not a predicate, property or attribute, but what we think it is. Morality is based on the naturalistic principles of mental habits and social customs, such as e.g., self-interest or altruism. However, Hume was unable to reconcile the paradox of sensible world with the logic of human thought.

Hume was the first to raise the problem of induction, b y arguing that the conclusion of inductive argument always implies a prediction. Yet, the fact that something happened in the past, irrespectively of its frequency, does not mean that it will happen again in the future (D.A. Kemp, 1976).

The concept of modern public library emerged from David Hume focus on utility (A. Black, 1991).

Relevance :

P: Empiricism focusing on sensory c ontent of experience.

Knowledge is created by a comparison of ideas, based on

intrinsic resemblance between them.

L: Concept of utility suggested as a base for the public library.

(2 citations)

HUSSERL, EDMUND (1859-1938)

Husserl, the German philosopher, redefined the concept of phenomenology as a system. His definit ions of the term went through several evolutionary changes from defining it first as a descriptive analysis of subjective processes, later as the eidetic science of material essences exemplified in subjective processes, and finally as the eidetic science of transcendental subjectivity. (Eidetic stands for an idea or image that constitutes the essence of things). In all of these definitions, however, phenomenology was always interpreted as a science of the subjective with its intentional objects, as transcendental and constitutive eidetics. Phenomenology focuses only on immediate data and is detached in consciousness from all preconceptions and natural facts.

Husserl considered thought independent of the processes producing them, bypassing the distinction between matter and mind as unrelated to the pure phenomena of experience.

Recognition of the importance of subjective knowledge by Husserl provided impetus for the non-quantitat ive, qualitative, phenomenological approaches (M.Glossop, 1978).

Indirectly, C.H. Rawski (1973) related Husserl's definition of scientific objectivity to librarianship. The definition reflects the growth of the discipline, its relations to other disciplines and its influence on the course of future inquiry within that discipline. But the limits of any discipline cannot be determined arbitrarily. The disciplinary sort crossing (based on spurious unity) is based on misin terpretation of the subject matter of the discipline and may negatively affect the use of methods which are not compatible with its true subject matter.

Relevance :

P: Phenomenological, introspective, descriptive analysis of

consciousness; importance of subjective knowledge and

independence of thoughts from the processes forming them.

L: Non-quantitative approach to librarianship and subjective

definitions of library information science. (2 citations)

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825-1895)

An English biologist, Huxley was a strong defender of evolution, and an inventor of the word 'agnosticism' and 'epiphenomenon'(an inconsequential by-product of a process, applied to consciousness). Neither materialist nor idealist, he accepted with qualification Darwinian theory of gradual modification of species, but felt that ethics cannot be explained by evolutionary naturalism.

Information combines objective and subjective aspects of reality, thus incorporating Huxley's recognition of only material reality (B.C. Brookes, 1980a).

Relevance :

P: The defender of modified evolutionism, maintaining that E thics

is not the subject of evolutionary naturalism.

L: Objective and subjective characteristics of information.

(1 citation)

JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-1910)

Major American philosopher and psychologist, known for his pragmatism (resolution of metaphysical issues by analysis of practical consequences), radical empiricism (ideas are red ucible to sensations), and neutral monism (fundamental reality is a neutral, undefined, neither mental nor physical, stuff). Reality is always in the making, its description depends on individuals' own preferred philosophy; this view implies pluralism in interpretation of experience and in the structure of the universe. Truth of moral belief is determined inductively by its consequences, and therefore, it is inseparable from human experience. Experience is however, 'double-barrelled': there is the ac tual experience and there are things that are experienced. G. Dunbar (1972) cites W. James' distinction between life and dead hypothesis, the former appeals to people, the latter does not.

In order to know we structure. "The subjective reason explains outer frequency by inward structure, not inward structure by outer frequency" (quoted by C.H. Rawski, 1973).

James distinguished between 'knowledge-of' (by acquaintance) and 'knowle dge-about' (by systematic study and reflection) (F.Machlup, 1980).

Possessing ideals is not enough by itself (e.g., librarians' defense of freedom), but there is a need to be able to defend them by organizing the defence of freedom (Shera, 1873).

W. Kerr (1920) thinks that James philosophy is applicable to librarianship. Its workable principles will induce results based on logical and moral approach, which implies faith in ourselves, our w ork and people we work with. The moral and intellectual enrichment of the mind is important in librarians' educational activities.

According to James, all things, including civilization, are held together by names; without them and name-givers we would have chaos. Thinking is a process of chain responses, its 'thinking to oneself'. His and Dewey's pragmatic philosophy of education are based on the assumption that we will never know the truth, and will always revise its approximations. Hence, philosophy is based on obedience to facts and hospitability to changes (Shera, 1972).James applied his pragmatism to the problems of classification and nomenclature: concepts are created by human in pursuit of some end endowed with names suiting these purposes. These concepts became fixed and immutable in the thought process of the human intellect. There is no property absolutely essential to any thing; the essence of any one thing is that which gives it a name - the name sta nds in mind for what the thing actually is. Hence Shera suggests that by accepting James approach, every library classification would be based on properties rather than essential aspects of the things. And since the same properties may be shared by different objects, they can serve as common axes to clusters of related schemes and as bases for cross-referential classification (Shera, 1965).

H.C. Wright (1984b) criticizes James' philosophy for its anti-intellectualism.< BR>

Relevance :

P: Pragmatic resolution of metaphysical issues by analysis of

practical consequences. Pluralistic concept of reality

depends on individuals' own preferred philosophy.

L: James philosophy suggests classification of library

material by its property rather than contents. (8 cit ations)

JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826)

An advocate of democracy and liberal philosophy, Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence, and served as the third president of the United States. In political theory he opposed centralization of government power, supported free speech, education, tolerance and religious freedom. Jefferson promoted diffusion of knowledge as the best device for the preservation of freedom and happiness (good v s. discouraged 'dangerous' knowledge) (F.Machlup, 1980). He also encouraged the support of state universities as a service to the society (proposal for the University of Virginia) (Shera, 1972).

According to M.H. Harris (1976a) the history of American librarianship can be seen as a cycle of recurring philosophies. In early thirties, philosophy of librarianship was the reintroduction of Jeffersonian intellectual freedom and neutrality, retaining conservative views in po litics and social attitudes. Harris argues (Harris, 1977) that the methodology of the studies of library history should reflect the Jeffersonian-Jacksonian-Rooseveltian, liberal, progressive continuum.

Putnam was strongly influenced by Jeffersonian concept of democracy, which requires treating each library patron as a unique individual by providing equal opportunity for education and scholarship to everyone (C.J. Krieg (1970). It was in Jeffersonian tradition, that libr ary services were extended from serving elite to working people (D. Bishop, 1976).

The Library of Congress was restarted by purchasing Jeffersonian library. Jefferson advocated creation of small circulating libraries to educated citizens for learning how to protect their own rights (J.Thompson, 1977).

Jefferson's classification of his own collection was based on Bacon's system, and later was accepted with modification by Library of Congre ss (Shera, 1965).

Relevance :

P: Political philosophy promoting democracy, small government,

free speech and religious tolerance. Promotion of diffusion

of knowledge as a means for democracy.

L: Support of public education, providing a prototype for Library

of Congress classification. (8 citations)

KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant was a German tutor, under-librarian and a professor of logic and metaphysics. His philosophy is called variously as (a) critical idealism (theory of knowledge), (b) criticism (study of the nature and limits of reason and knowledge free of dogmatism and skepticism), (d) transcendentalism (superiority of intuitive over empirical approach) and (e) transce ndental idealism (knowledge of the external world is obtained by transcendental unity, 'logical ego', of apperception).

Kant's central issue was the nature of presuppositions of experience and the capacities and limits of human reason. Metaphysical questions addressed by him included: (a) 'How are

a priori synthetic judgments possible?'. (Universal judgments add to our knowledge but cannot be validated by experience). (b) 'What can I know? ( Follow rules accepted by everyone and ask no privileges). (c) 'What ought I to do?' (Prescription: give others the rights you claim for yourself). (d) 'What may I know?' (all knowledge relates to experience, but not all is derived from it. Experienced knowledge conforms to the structure of thought;

a priori knowledge makes experiences intelligible). (e) Is metaphysics possible? (There is no possibility for the science of metaphysics, but the pure reason, the theoretical knowledge, points to things-in-themselves, which we cannot know from experience, but only how they appear under a priori form of reason; we know them as phenomena). (f) 'What is aesthetic judgment?' (The harmony of an object of cognition with the forms of knowledge; the compatibility between Nature and freedom). (g) 'What is the natural purposiveness of Nature?" (Not necessarily a real attribute, but a priori, heuristic principle, a hypothesis, by which we give Nature its purpose and meaning).

Kant's assertion that the categories of understanding must be deduced theoretically are no longer necessary because they are social constructs (K.J. McGarry, 1975).

Kant rejected the idea that knowledge is an imprint of sense impressions on the passive mind, arguing that the mind is actively selecting and organizing its own experiences into 'categories', and the human knowledge is formed by interaction with the environment (K.J. McGarry, 1 975).

Kant recognized 'science proper' that deals with purely analytical propositions, and metaphysics, the science of first principles of human cognition (F. Machlup, 1980).

He distinguished Pure, or Rational from Applied or Empirical knowledge; and the faculty of judgment (relating general principles to particular cases) and faculties of understanding and reason (combining these general principles) (Shera, 1965, 1972).

Kant felt that form is an ideal, abstract, nonphysical, metaphysical entity (Young, 1987). He distinguished between rational and empirical knowledge (of Plato) and followed Hobbes dichotomy between them (Shera, 1965l).

Kantian ethical principles consist of (a) good will (desire to act correctly), (b) duty (adherence to the law), (c) categorical imperatives (harm-avoiding universalizable action) and

(d) ethical action evaluated in terms of ends not means

(R. Hauptman, 1988).

One of the categorical imperatives in moral philosophy is to treat each person as an end, never as a means. Education should consist of discipline, culture, discretion and moral training. Its essence is the enlightenment, a logical thinking as opposed to random behavior. In educating a child, the main purpose is the development and learning through activities and to shape character and commitment to duty through principles of obedience, truthfulness, and sociableness.

J. Alexander (1944) notes a distinction between the neo-Aristotelean focus on ethical practice, Kantian deontology (merited are only the actions based on sense of duty as prescribed by reason), utilitarianism (the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people), and post-Enlightenment school of ethics. Librarians, according to C.D. Batty (1966) are focusing on form and structure rather than substance or content, on 'how' rather than 'what'. This approach required a faculty of judgment, defined by Kant as relating general principles to particular cases in the selection of appropriate rules. In discussing subjective knowledge, M. Glossop (1978) refers to Kant's distinction between things as they are perceived and as they actually are.

C.J. Krieg (1970) noted that Kant's principle of individual responsibility for self-improvement was one of the influential p hilosophical principles in Putnam 's own thinking.

Library is responsible for providing not only ready-made information, but also 'personal knowledge', the enlightenment in Kantian sense of emergence from one's self-insecure immaturity (S. Larsen (1988).

J. Bekker (1976) illustrates deontological approach to library ethics by citing Kant's categorical imperative (one should act as if that action follows a universal law).

Relevance :

P: Critical Idealism concentrating on the nature of

presuppositions of experience and on the capacities and

limits of human reason. Form is defined as an ideal, abstract,

nonphysical, metaphysical entity; distinction is made between

rational and empirical knowledge.

L: The library is responsible for providing information and personal knowledge. (13 citations)

KAPLAN, ABRAHAM (1918- )

One of the papers delivered at the Chicago's Intellectual Foundations of Library Education in 1964 was an essay by Abraham Kaplan: 'The Age of the Symbol - A philosophy of Library Education'. At the time of the conference Kaplan was a professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan; his main fields of interest were aesthetics, psychoanalysis, legal and political philosophy. The essay here partly abstracted was in the past often cited by writers in the philosophy of librarianship.

Kaplan's main argument was that the library's metaphysical focus should be not on the nature of human beings but on the ideas about them. In this sense librarianship is a part of metadisciplines such as philosophy (Nitecki, 1997).

(a) On librarianship:

"The role of philosophy is . . . to hold the mirror up to nature, and particularly . . . to human nature" (Kaplan, 1964, p. 295). Human knowledge is known to very few human beings, hence the main functions of the library are as: (1) a repository service (society's memory), (2) a means of education (improving patrons status in society by sharing with them experiences of others) and as (3) a re-search (not extending knowledge but making available the knowledge already existing).Library focuses on a flow of ideas, shifted throughout history from the role of 'operating gas station' to 'a traffic transportation engineer', stressing fundamental issue of information flow.

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