Metalibrarianship

CHAPTER 9: Intellectual Environment of Metalibrarianship

9.1 The concept of Intellectual Environment (IE)

9.1.1 Introduction

Traditionally, discussions of intellectual environment in librarianship focus on the reading activities and the availability of reading materials in the library, stre ssing their nonmanual, mental dimension. This viewpoint is inherited from the times when librarians struggled for a professional self-identity, by combating a stereotype of a librarian presented as a glorified clerk, dedicated only to the physical processing of books, and encouraging their reading in a perfectly quiet library.

The interpretation of intellectual environment in this chapter relates to a different aspect of the discipline. The library created by its society is responsible not f or influencing the changes in the individual environments of its patrons, but for providing and protecting the intellectual environment itself. By facilitating access to records and the use of them, the library leaves it to the individual patron to determine how to use the available resources. Library always serves the needs of every individual who asks for the service by responding to his or her intellectual demands for information. Both the types of needs and the kinds of information vary considerab ly.

Common in all libraries is a function of facilitating the transfer of the content of recorded messages 'as is' to individual patrons. The uniform responsibility shared by all libraries is a creation and preservation of a proper environment, necessary for such a transfer. This approach requires better understanding of the cultural and behavioral needs of library patrons. The library interior arrangement, for example, should be based on the psychological needs of its clientele, and the librarians sh ould be socially and politically sensitive to users' attitudes (Bergen, 1963).

Thus the major objective of intellectual environment is a provision of opportunities for understanding the reality. Since our knowledge will never be complete, the way we interpret knowledge is the key to our understanding of this environment. The distinction between reality and its appearance is a perennial issue of philosophy.

The model of intellectual environment in librarianship proposed in this book att empts to interrelate major views of perceiving the world. There is no one exclusive way of interpreting reality, whether using the philosophical, scientific, or pragmatic method of investigation. Hence, there is no one correct viewpoint, no one theory or hypothesis that covers all aspects of our knowledge. Clearly, the librarian must recognize and respect the individual patron's motivation in searching for a particular kind of knowledge. Hence, the major mission of librarianship is to prov ide an intellectual environment that would create the opportunity for any patron to explore library collection of recorded knowledge to satisfy his or her own needs.

9.1.2 Contemporary Anti-intellectualism

The current library intellectual environment is passive; it offers users an opportunity to expand their intellectual curiosity, but it does not directly assist them in this process. To change the present attitude, librarians must change their philosophical orient ation by expanding their purely pragmatic preoccupation with the process of acquiring and disseminating the information. To do this, they need a much better understanding of the individual patron's motivation in using the available information, and they also need to develop a world viewpoint that integrates a variety of different, individual interpretations of reality. Librarians must combine bibliographic expertise with psychological mastery of mediation and consultation. This is why John Dewey, a true pra gmatist, encouraged an intellectual approach to life, arguing for (1) a liberalization of practitioners by enlarging their horizons, and for (2) bringing the intellectuals down to earth by applying their philosophies toward practical ends (Dewey, 1933). In effect, he argued against the prevailing anti-intellectualism in our materialistic society.

Stieg (1992), in her argument for a need for a knowledge base in librarianship, pointed out some theoreticians for whom "knowledge is less a matter of skill, facts, or learning than it is of understanding . . . . For them, attitude [to serve] overrides cognition." This approach, Stieg argues, tends "to confuse debate over intellectual foundations by substituting feeling for reasoning . . . it adds an anti-intellectual element that compromises the claims of librarianship to be a learned profession."2

Issacson, whose essay is summarized here, maintains that today the social perception of intellectualism is more important that the intellectualism itself. "The chief characteristic of an intellectual is the capacity to make discriminating judgments; the chief characteristic of an anti-intellectual is to 'discriminate' against that very capacity.3 The basis of the prejudice, according to him, lies in the long-established social tradition of distrusting the life of mind. It is seen in the characterization of an intellectual as one who is condescending, anti-democratic, judgmental, and prejudice d in value judgments, living off ideas rather than for them. In general, people are impatient with careful thinkers, perceived as those who are finding problems where none seems to exist, who criticize contradictions, and who answer old questions by asking new ones. The philosophically oriented individual, dedicated to discovering new ideas, is not a model to be imitated in a very pragmatic society which prefers quick solutions to complicated problems.

Issacson notes that a number of libr arians share with their society its anti-intellectual prejudices, although they themselves have been victims of such bias. These people feel that a theoretically oriented librarian does not fit the stereotype in that he or she seems to be a contradiction of the librarian's traditional image as preoccupied with the physical aspects of the library and with efficient service of its collection.

Some librarians maintain that there is no time in the field for reading on the job or for bookwor ms, misplaced specialists who are not willing to commit all their time exclusively to serving the public. They argue that the librarians raison d'etre is service to others; they overlook a simple fact that service is not tied to the reference desk or the physical book alone. To be concerned about philosophical aspects of the discipline does not imply that one has to neglect responsibility for service. It is also a mistake to assume that intellectuals necessarily conform to certain perso nality types, as satirized by the stereotype of an introvert or a narrow-minded specialist. Nor is there a conflict between intellectual viewpoints and efficient operation of libraries.

The real issue, Issacson maintains, is how the intellect is applied to the library situation. Obviously, the distinction between the theoretical-intellectual, and practical nonintellectual, librarian, viewed as unconcerned about the role of each other, is wrong. The statement that librarians work with books as tools but not as scholars is misleading. A reference librarian versed in the organization of an index only but not acquainted with the subject matter related to that index cannot provide professionally effective service to the patron. Similarly, showing the patron how to find 'information' without interpreting its meaning is an anti-intellectual prejudice. "To think like a librarian is not to think differently from a nonlibrarian, but it is to concentrate the mind on problems most nonlibrarians don't t hink about."4 Reference is not merely a problem-solving activity, but also a teaching function. Books are not only to be shelved, or preserved, but are also sources of information, enjoyment, and knowledge.

In librarianship, information and its sources or rough data are often assumed to be equivalent with knowledge. It is overlooked that these sources are meaningless by themselves, unless they are interpreted by the patron and often with the librarian's assistance. Thus the real issue is how to apply intellect in librarianship. Butler has also reminded us of the need to balance the intellectual with emotional approaches to environment. Excessive intellectualism that leads to a form of preoccupation with information on a theoretical level at the expense of emotional experience in absorbing that information leads to a decline of both the emotional and rational views of reality (Butler, 1943).

9.1.3 Definition of Intellectual Environment

The world is real and constantly changing, hence our knowledge of it will never be complete; all that is possible is to interpret known facts as they appear to us at a particular moment and in a given context, with other known facts. As already pointed out, the distinction between reality and its appearance is a subject of many philosophical interpretations. For Protagoras, each aspect of reality was interpreted differently by each individual. Berkeley maintained that all qualitative pro perties of reality are apparent. Kant made a distinction between the appearance of the things and the things themselves.

Librarianship deals with the reality as it 'seems to appear' at any given moment to any individual; although the appearance itself may actually be that very reality. What it actually is can never be fully verified because the interpretation always depends on the psychological background of a particular interpreter of that reality, as well as on the completeness and intellectual level of its interpretation.

The uniqueness of each intellectual environment is a paradox: no two experiences are the same, yet no events or their interpretations are independent of each other, since everything in the universe is interwoven in a continuous pattern of shifting relations. The circularity of that paradox is minimized by the notion of relevance, that is, by selecting only relations relevant to the specific needs (Bronowski, 1978). The principle of relevance is illustrated by models which always reflect selective relations, or by any library collections aiming at a selected audience. This is a metaphorical approach focusing on a subjective perception of reality as it appears to be related to other perceptions, together constituting our understanding of that reality.

9.1.4 The Three-dimensionality of Information Environment

Common to all types of librarianship are the relationships between the receiver of co mmunication (alpha), the meaning communicated (beta), and the carrier of the message (gamma).

The concept of three-dimensionality does not imply that the reality is in fact three-dimensional; it merely reflects a selection of factors considered in this study to be a major influence on intellectual environment. Models do not dispute empirical descriptions of reality; they offer hypothetical interpretations of relations between different experiences or observations of that reality (Locke, 1967). A tripartite structure of a model provides the minimum number of viewpoints necessary to describe the multiplicity of relations between them.

A philosophical model proposed here represents a reality as a network of interrelations between three basic perceptions of that reality. The first is physiological, empirical observation based on a direct stimulation, or indirect recall of previous related stimulation created by some aspects of external world. This is the on ly empirically verified input from the external reality. The second is psychological interpretation of responses to these stimulation, which vary with each individual's unique psychological makeup, such as a degree of sensitivity, motivation, or will. And the third is philosophical, conscious awareness of the experience, which is logically related to past experiences.

A corresponding model of library reality consists of three distinctive dimensions: (1) the procedural, physiological dim ension of acquiring, organizing, and disseminating information records (Pd); (2) the contextual, psychological dimension interpreted in terms of the environment provided for the use of library resources (Cx); and (3) the conceptual, philosophical dimension of analytical relationships between library stimuli and patron's responses (Co).

Proceduralism addresses the issues related to the processes of librarianship and focuses on the alpha-beta-gamma transfer. Conceptualism aims at a formation of the basic concepts in the philosophy of librarianship and concentrates on the product of the alpha-beta-gamma transfer, and contextualism interprets the conditions of the alpha-beta-gamma processes and their outcomes. Each individual's own interpretation of reality is an expression of the three approaches; interrelated by the 'if-then' proposition -- that is, if a given dimension is predominant, its interpretation of the reality will over shadow but not totally eliminate other i nterpretations.

The interrelationships between the above three dimensions in the metaphorical model constitute the essence of metalibrarianship. This reinforces the notion that there is no one correct way of interpreting library reality. Information transfer depends not only on the information records, their author, or their receiver, but also on the intellectual environment of the transfer.

9.1.5 Significance of Intellectual Environment

Intellect is a c ognitive faculty of mind, aiming at discovering relationships between various perceptions of reality and relating them to other experiences. Knowledge of reality is expressed by ideas about it, experienced physically or mentally by an individual, either directly or through some means of communication. The brain, physically similar in all individuals, correlates these experiences differently for each individual, reflecting their different intellectual background. The intellectual level of each indiv idual is expressed in terms of that person's capability to relate various experiences to each other, making his or her present experience meaningful in terms of past experiences (Long & Welch, 1971).

Intellect is an active, motivating force in search of better understanding of conceptual interrelationships. For example, passive knowledge of library classification may be helpful in finding a particular, physical volume, while intellectual curiosity to learn more about the classificatory system itself will provide better access to other books on similar subject. Hence, to repeat, the major objective of the library intellectual environment is to provide opportunities for better understanding of reality, by extending the access to the recorded knowledge about it.

9.2 Interpretation of IE in Librarianship

9.2.1 Introduction

"Information is not a property of documents, nor of bibliographic records, but the relationship be tween the data and the recipient,"5 hence the basic social values of the library are not its resources or services, but the opportunities offered to a patron to utilize available resources according to his or her intellectual needs.

However, the library is much more than just the provider of information (Apostle & Raymond, 1986). It should stimulate creativity in the use of resources by facilitating browsing, free-text searching, and concept-focused subject headin gs (Bawden, 1986). Psychological needs for intellectual environment should focus less on technical and more on metaphorical approach (Sheridan, 1986). The user's subjective psychological attitude toward information-seeking activities and his indirect use of philosophical introspection calls for development of analytical, critical, and evaluative skills in interpreting library resources (Ford, 1986).

The social responsibility of librarianship extends beyond the bibliographic organization and interpretation of information records into the development of the environment that would satisfy intellectual needs of individual patrons. "Failure to use one's intellectual capacities . . . may lead to a sort of intellectual atrophy and to rapid deterioration of the ability to perform even fairly elementary mental tasks."6

I have selected two literary examples that illustrate the description of intellectual environment in librarianship on the three diff erent levels. Both discuss the place of intellectual aspect in library education, Swanson concentrates on the process of formulating its goals while Khursid offers a historical review of its proponents viewpoints.7

9.2.2 As a Goal-setting Process (Swanson, 1964)

Swanson maintains that information science, technology, retrieval, and documentation are all integral parts of library science. The intellectual foundation of so-defined library sc ience must be formulated in terms of its goals. The process of formulating these goals, described by Swanson, can be considered on three different levels.

(a) The goals should be stated in the context of the user's needs and behavior, as distinguished from the means to accomplish them. Issues to be considered include the relationship between the library and its patron, reviewed in terms of the library mission as an agency of culture. The library role in disseminating published material should be based on understanding the profile of the reader, the types of communication channels, and their significance. Equally important is the speed of library response to patrons' requests for information. Once goals are established they should be followed by system analysis which would assist planning for resources, equipment, automation, and estimation of costs to implement the plan. This is an example of considering library science in a contextual dimension of intellectual environment.

(b) The concrete issues in intellectual access to information include specific library operations such as indexing, subject analysis, reference, bibliography, and issues related to classification and cataloging. The latter include semantics, syntax, thesaurus compilation, generic search, file storage, organization, and mathematical and linguistic analyses of communication problems. The list describes the procedural aspect of the library's intellectual environment.

(c) And finally, designing book-selection, developing optimal allocation of resources, and identifying the criteria in evaluating the quality of a collection are all, according to Swanson, issues that can be addressed by different specialists, among them philosophers, sociologists, mathematicians, engineers, classificators, bookmen, librarians, documentalists, and information scientists. This is the conceptual level of determining the relevance of any of these activities, such as, in the case of librarianship, the relationship betwe en retrieval effectiveness and depth of indexing.

9.2.3 As an Interpretation of Library Mission (Khurshid, 1976)

Khurshid provided a comprehensive list of librarians who addressed the question of the intellectual foundation of the discipline. He concluded that the concept of intellectual foundation can be described in terms of librarians' different attitudes toward their mission. Their views can be broadly divided into three perceptions of that mission, reflecting: (1) love of ideas expressed in books; (2) an encyclopedic grasp of knowledge; and (3) academic subject specialization. The objective of library education, Khurshid maintains, should be to promote book culture, because the foundation of librarianship rests on recorded knowledge.

His long list of writers expressing a variety of these views can be rearranged into the three major groups discussed in the previous section.

(a) Procedural Perception
The most prominent approach is the prag matic view of the reader's mind, perceived as Locke's tabula rasa, that can be influenced by reading. The book content stimulates the individual's nervous system and produces sensory reactions, which in turn, are interpreted intellectually. The reader accepts the values expressed in the book by asking a structural question: What is the specific reality described in that book? Anticipating the question, librarians attempt to guess what kind of reality the patron is interested in, before suggest ing to him or her the reading material.

Library writers representing this viewpoint, according to Khurshid, include managers of library facilities such as Naude, who maintained that a librarian is a born specialist in the sources of information and scholarship, and John Drury, who considered the librarian to be a trader, treasurer, and dispenser of knowledge. Among contemporary librarians, J. Christian Bay (1931) compared librarianship to medicine, Ortega (1961) made librarians masters of book s, doctors and hygienists of reading, and R. Irwin (1949) defined librarianship as an applied bibliography that includes paleography, service, book selection, cataloging, and classification.

The requirements for a procedural librarianship included acquaintance with books, readers, and society as a whole, advocated by Wellard;8 and book appreciation, scholarly disposition, and social mindedness, suggested by Reece (1936). The librarian should simply be, according to Carl White (1964) and M. Wilder-Hart (1956), a bookman. Others suggested citizenship, scholarship, administrative and technical abilities, and acquisition of all fields of knowledge, with specialization only in some. B. Sayers stressed the importance of the personal characteristics of the librarian, and Carnovsky (1962) talked about his judgmental ability. Williamson (1923) in his report called for separation of clerical and professional duties.

One of the older descriptions of the procedural app roach, reflecting the state of technological knowledge at the time, was Ebert's (1820) call for a possession of a knowledge of history, bibliography and basic disciplines, rapid handwriting, knowledge of carpentry, and ability to repair books.

(b) Contextual Perception.
Closely related to the pragmatic view of the practicing librarian is a current interest, especially among public library advocates, in motivating patrons to read. Reading, they claim, will bring readers to the library, reinforcing its reading environment. Here emphasis is on the individual's unique sensory reaction to the physical stimulation provided by reading a book. The imprecision in determining patrons' needs, which are constantly changing, is troubling, however. That variation is seen ~as a reaction to changes in both (a) the external patron's environment, resulting from shifting demands imposed by the patron's work environment, and (b) changes in his personal environment, manifested by a constant redefin ition of his own self image. The changed demand of the environment affects the intellectual needs of the individual. The question asked here is functional: How relevant is the reality dealt with in a book to the reality experienced at a particular time by the patron? This is also a familiar problem faced by the reference librarian who tries to anticipate the aspect of reality of interest to the inquiring patron.

This approach is represented in Khurshid's list by writers focusing on the role of librarian as an interpreter of knowledge. Cassiodorus expected librarians to have sound learning, developed by reading and copying of books. Wheeler (1946) called for introducing subjects which are of academic value in library school's curricula. Danton (1934) stressed the importance of mastering scientific literature. Metcalf (1943) summarized this particular intellectual environment of librarianship by arguing for strong background in science and literature, taking from sociology its institutional character, from education its cultural values, and from philosophy its general theory of learning.

(c) Conceptual Perception
Probably the least understood is the third approach, trying to explain the way the patron mentally interrelates the curiosity to understand better the environment aroused by his physical and psychological experiences. Here the awareness of insufficient knowledge of a particular aspect of environment leads to an increased need for more information in other areas. The question asked is relational: Why does a selected record interpret the reality in a given way? The patron searches for answers to this question by testing the content of a book, while the librarian finds the answer in the feedback from the user of the material.

Librarians representing this approach include Munn (1936), for whom the librarian is a scholar. Shera (1964) expanded the field by introducing social epistemology involving all fields of knowledge, and the philosopher Kaplan (1964) b y including library science in the group of metasciences. Cotton Des Houssayes (1780) expected librarians to have vast and precise knowledge of arts and sciences. L .C. Powell (1959) would not be satisfied with librarians possessing less than encyclopedic knowledge, which to Thompson (1931) could be obtained by book-learning habits.

9.3 Metalibrary Interpretation of IE

9.3.1 As an Interpretation of Reality

In metalibrarianship, the different approaches to the under standing of intellectual reality are summarized in Fig. 9-1. As shown in the table, the structural aspect of reality is represented by a descriptive theory. What is most important here is the content of the collection and the extent of efforts made to maximize access to it, either directly, through the expansion of library's own collection, or by developing efficient interlibrary cooperation.

FIG. 9-1 Interpretation of Reality in Metalibrarianship. < a href="#9">9

Reader's	Metalibrary Interpretation of reality in:
Perception of Reality	Theoretical Models	Selective Collections	Interpretative Services
Structural: What is X?	Descriptive Hypotheses	Focus on Content	Provision of Data
Functional : How is X Manifested?	Reasoning by Analogy	Specific Arrangement	Information Retrieval
Relational: Why is X Interrelated?	Metaphorical Interpretation	Classificatory Relevance	Research and Reference

The functional approach is developed by analogy with other similar manifestations of reality. The rational is explained metaphorically by defining the lesser-known aspect of environment in terms of its more familiar manifestation. Of significance here is the arrangement of the available material, its classification, and the effective method of its retrieval.

The relational approach is based on a metaphorical model, reflecting the dependence of the interpretation of reality on the subjective interrelationships between its different appearances and their relevance to any particular situation. This area of librarianship is the least known and most in need of research.

9.3.2 As a Thought Process

Metalibrarianship is here defined as an abstract system that interrelates generic needs for knowledge expressed by an individual with equally generic recorded means available for that individual. The focus is on the constantly changing metaphorical relations between given and newly perceived dimensions of reality, as they are expressed in information records (Nitecki, 1981).

The IE model is based on the concept of human synergy: an individual's intellectual ability to combine a multiplicity of interacting principles into a composite, three-dimensional view of reality. It relates to the physiological concept of a metaphorical mind defined as an equilibrium between the rational, analytic half of the brain with the emotional, creative half. It treats all the inputs to brain as fragments of th e whole reality, each modifying the existing image of the total reality (Samples, 1976).

Traditionally, thinking is perceived as a product of other processes, illustrated, for example, by a comparison of the pictures of reality with the ideas about that reality. In this section, however, I follow the definition of thinking as a creative process of detecting relations between different ideas or sensations of reality in terms of the similarity and relevance between them (Reeves, 1965). Thinking is our way of seeing reality, and the theories about thought processes correspond to the theories about reality. The Stimulus-Response approach focuses on thinking as a process of body responses to external stimulations. Here "thought is simply behavior -- verbal or non-verbal -- covert or overt." 10

Definition of thinking processes in Gestalt psychology is made in terms of responses to the complex, total stimuli. In this process the meaning of stimuli is grasp ed as a disequilibrium in the prior intellectual concept of reality, caused by the introduction of new factors (Berlyne, 1984).

Conceptually, the thinking process brings the physical and psychological interpretations of reality into a coherent, unified concept, expressing both the physiological responses of the nervous system and the psychological, emotional reactions to the perceived reality. Hence the thinking processes provide a link between the three dimensions of reality, interrelat ing the perceptions of both the author and the receiver of recorded information.

9.3.3 Metalibrary Model of IE

(a) IE Process
An individual responds to the physical stimulation of data by creating his own mental image of the reality represented by the data in terms of newly received stimulation. The interpretation of the stimulation is made in terms of available information about it. That info-stimulation is then compared with images already registered in th e mind by previous info-stimulations. This results in expanding the individual's knowledge of reality into new intellectual images of that reality within an ever-changing data-information-knowledge continuum.

In this process of emerging intellectual reality, "every act of awareness is a recognition . . . that it is a product of prior relations now raised to consciousness through the recognition of similarity."11 The reality is expressed in librarianship by collections of records about it. For example, a patron's inquiry about that reality may be satisfied in three ways:
(1) structural, in which selected aspects of reality of interest to the patron are presented in the form of a descriptive cataloging of collection;
(2) functional, in which classification of the library collection reflects relevant aspects of reality by analogy to other similar aspects, experienced by the patron; and
(3) relational, focusing on a specific interdependence between differe nt, less or more familiar aspects of reality, explained metaphorically and determined by the relevance of a particular selection of material to the patron.

The intellectual library environment offers an individual patron an access to source material relevant to a variety of his needs, from empirical interest in the physical aspects of reality, humanistic insights into the subjective realities, and philosophical interest in its rational dimensions.

(b) The Three-dimensional Interpret ation
The metaphorical synthesis interrelates the three types of reality in the library's intellectual environment: (a) physical reality of library records, (b) cultural reality of human perception of the records' meaning, and (c) philosophical reality of interrelationships between specific alpha-beta-gamma relationships and data-information-knowledge transfer processes. Each of the realities is interpreted at procedural (Pd), contextual (Cx) and conceptual (Co) levels.

[Fig. 9-2]: Metalibrary Reality 12

This synthesis provides a logical explanation of stimulus- response sequences, it clarifies the unpredictability of the patron's inner-driven responses, and it incorporates these responses into a model of metaphoric reality.

The model accounts for the logical objectivity of the process describing the reality, and its subjective interpretation by individual patrons, by incorporating seemingly unrelated individual ex periences into a totality of cumulative society's -- as well as the individual's -- understanding of reality. This approach should satisfy the pragmatic goals of practicing librarians and the theoretical objectives of information scientists, since it recognizes the existence of different goals and habits in both practical and abstract thinking and suggests a common denominator for both the empirical and metaphysical interpretation of reality.

1. The ideas expre ssed in this part of the book are freely borrowed from my previously published essays.

2. Stieg, M. F. (1992). Change and Challenge in Library and Information Science Education . Chicago: American Library Association, p. 10. Note also Patrick Wilson's criticism of Stieg's essay as "a profoundly reactionary book, showing a strong distaste for the kind of research, development, and professional practice in information work that is gradua lly growing from deep roots in bibliography and librarianship." "Book Reviews." College & Research Libraries , May 1993, vol. 54, no. 3, p.276.

3. Isaacson, D. (February 1, 1982). "Anti-Intellectualism," in American Libraries. Library Journal , 107(3), p. 232.

4. Ibid., p. 231.

5. Matheson, Nina (1984). Quoted by Battin, P. (Summer 1984). "The Electronic Library - A Vision for the Future. " Educom Bulletin , 12-17, p. 13.

6. Granick, S. and A. S. Friedman (1973). "Educational Experience and the Maintenance of Intellectual Functioning by the Aged; An overview." In L. F. C. Eisdorfer and J. E. Blum Jar- vik (eds.), Intellectual Functioning in Adults : Psychological and Biological Influences . New York: Springer, pp. 59-64.

7. The two viewpoints discussed here are the summaries of essay s by Swanson (1964) and Khurshid (1976).

8. Wellard, J. H. (1940). The Public Library Comes of Age . London: Grafton, p. 147.

9. Nitecki, J. Z. (Spring/Fall 1987). "Cognitive Processes and Librarianship: Review of Literature in Search of a Model." Current Studies in Librarianship , 11(1/2), p. 8.

10. Skinner, quoted by Berlyne, D. E. (1984). "Thought Processes, Theories of." In The New Enc yclopedia Britannica Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., p. 641.

11. Yolton, J. W. (1962). Thinking and Perceiving . LaSalle, Illinois: The Open Court.

12. Nitecki, J.Z. (1987), op. cit., p. 10.