5.0 Theoretical aspects of the domains.

5.1 Overall aspects.

5.1.1 General comments.

20th-century science will be remembered for: (1) the theory of relativity, which eliminated Newton's illusion of absolute space and time, (2) quantum theory, which did away with the Newtonian dream of controllable measurement processes, and (3) chaos theory which canceled the Laplancian notion of deterministic predictability (Gleick, J., 1987).

The function of intellect is to find order in chaos; the "strange attractors" (a noise in communication) conflate order and disorder, creating unpredictability, raising entropy and thus information. Energy at its macroscopic level can be measured; on the microscopic level it is contained in countless atoms swimming randomly, immeasurable. The two levels do not communicate with each other and represent chaotic systems. They are bridged by information, transmitted from one level to another through strange attractors, magnifying initial randomness, just as the butterfly effect magnifies small uncertainties into large-scale weather patterns. Order is ingrained in disorder (Gleick, J., 1987).

Many of the traditional interpretations of reality are revisited. For example, the Darwinian natural selection theory does not reconcile intellectual freedom with social responsibility. Hence, Piaget's theory based on information-seeking behavior as a primary mechanism in evolution, is more appropriate for theories in librarianship (Pansegrouw, J. G., 1990).

5.1.2 Metaphysical meaning.

Theoretical foundations for librarianship are based on the need to understand human nature and thought processes, paralleling developments in communication technology (Horowitz, R. G., 1988) such as indexing and classification of objective knowledge, based on understanding of human processes in problem solving (Neill, S., 1982b).

Presently, theoretical reasoning in library literature is philosophically inadequate, lacking full analysis of its various aspects (White, D. A., 1980); the inadequacy is illustrated by a confusion between metaphorically described concepts of (a) information and knowledge, (b) mind and computer, and (c) their real nature (Nitecki, J. Z., 1983b).

Five theories (ideologies) in librarianship are identified: (1) the conservative theory, an elitist and old-fashioned theory in which librarians are considered guardians and custodians of knowledge and culture; (2) the technocratic theory, viewing libraries as efficient delivery systems of information; (3) the liberal theory, considering a library as a provider of commodities for an individual patron; (4) the radical and pseudo-radical reactionary and anti-intellectual theories, replacing library elitism with popular culture, and (5) genuinely radical theories, critically evaluating social relations aiming at the elimination of capitalistic system (Mole, A., 1979).

5.1.3 Epistemological characteristics.

The impact of technology on library and information science, its philosophical assumptions, theoretical formulations, and practical applications are significant. Information policy will require the provision of equal access to resources, expanding circulation by incorporating other relevant disciplines; access and preservation will be improved and new theories focusing on technology-driven research and the patron's behavior will have to be developed (U.S. Dept. of Education, 1988).

5.2 Specific theories in LIS.

Theories of librarianship are based on integrated systems of measurable relationships, regularities, and laws between (among others) the contributions of publishing industry, library selection, and acquisition policies. Together with other variables they impact on storage, preservation, and classification of the collection, which are necessary conditions for library circulation (McGrath, W. C., 1994).

In this section a few selected theories are summarized to illustrate the nature of theoretical formulations in library information science.

5.2.1 Book selection and collection theory.

Book selection theory, as in the case of any other value theory, has descriptive and normative aspects. The former discusses the bases for actual selection decisions, the latter focuses on the alternatives that ought to be considered. Each selection involves quantitative, consultative, selective, documentary, and market values (Taube, M., 1941).

The general theory of book selection is based on literary criteria and reading needs, determined by sociological and psychological studies of reading impact on the reader. Consideration is given to: (1) readers (their reading skills), (2) publications (content and style), and (3) goals of reading (determinant of reading needs). Selection aims at a well-rounded collection (something on everything) and a match for the type of reader to be served (Goldhor, H., 1942).

Selection criteria must be based not only on demand but also on intended goals of the publications, their degree of meeting the requirements of a particular publication form, and its unique contribution to the field (Gerard, K. H., 1991).

Politics and philosophy of collection development changed from 1950s activism to 1980s skepticism about the governmental role, affecting the quality of collections and increasing demands for preferential treatment, forcing librarians to be more involved in public relations (Fletcher, J., 1983).

There is a need for sensitivity to the organization of knowledge, interrelated ideas, events, and other related elements -- all as factors in book selection (Stiffler, S. A., 1963).

Library collections ought to include opposite views, conform to scientific facts, and be compatible with human values. Librarians are not responsible for the ways people think, but are responsible for telling them what to think about (Monroe, M. E., 1962a).

It is a paradox to emphasize in collection development policies the library's service to individual patrons, considering at the same time all individuals as a uniform group (Foss, S. W., 1909); similarly, there is a conflict between the public library's goal of satisfying patrons_ preferences as they are expressed in the popular culture and its own undemocratic preference in its book selection for high (quality) culture (Stevenson, G., 1977).

5.2.2 Culturalism of Butler.

Theories of librarianship must be concerned with scholarship and civilization, hence the library's working philosophy may be called "culturalism." Culturalism consists of physical equipment, social organization, and a system of ideas. Standards in librarianship include reading as its central activity and promotion of scholarship as its purpose. Scholarship may be empirical (demonstrative), oral (expressing verbal text), graphic (recorded in writing), analytical (from premises to conclusions), synthetical (producing common sense approaches), or intellectual (manifold awareness and inference). Its products are science, technologies, and concrete and abstract humanism (Butler, P., 1944).

Culturalism is an understanding of the nature of scholarship and its function in society. It involves: (1) appraising the library stance in the total civilization, (2) bringing all diverse library interests under one rubric, and (3) defining standards of scholarship that are formulated in the context of individuals as a member of a society, with the library assisting the individuals in achieving their goals (Butler. P., 1933).

Fallacies in standards of scholarship may be: (a) "of constants" (the monistic fallacy of identifying variables with one of its values), (b) "of convenience" (the operating fallacy of identifying problems with their solutions), (c) "of processes" (the mechanistic fallacy of identifying things with the activities that produce them) and (d) "of origin" (the generic fallacy of identifying totality with its components or end products with their origin) (Butler, P., 1944).

Poststructuralism is a form of cultural criticism that opposes the epistemology of positivism by questioning the sociology of knowledge in librarianship. The view assumes that there is no objective reality, only a reality socially constructed and determined by socioeconomic background and personal experiences. The focus should be on the selective interpretation of information from a non-conventional perspective, not affected by any specific economic or cultural dominance (Farmer, J. A., 1993).

5.2.3 Field theory (Harlow's adaptation).

Field theory is an approach in the philosophy of librarianship that refers to the generalized notion of the area in which all activities take place; its properties and structures explain all phenomena; its elements are arranged into "interbehaving" systems interrelating with the whole. The process starts with a situation as a whole, stressing organization rather than its parts. In librarianship, the "field" stands for existing knowledge and "information" is part of larger field of general knowledge, with subsystems of information, processes, and people interacting with each other. The approach includes: (a) generation, organization, and storage of records, (b) interface between records and users, (c) retrieval of information and its transmission, and (d) evaluation of output in terms of the user's needs (Harlow, N., 1969c). Philosophy of librarianship based on the field theory stresses a macro approach that interrelates various elements of the discipline in an organic whole (Harlow, W. N., 1969a).

5.2.4 Functional theory of Christ.

The functional theory of librarianship emerges from metaphysical philosophy and focuses on directedness of a total system in its historical contexts. The functional method is an analytical process, interrelating specific phenomena with an integral whole, based on two metaphysical assumptions: (a) every action has its functions, and (b) societies are well integrated, facilitating investigation of social systems and developing functional rather than deterministic relations (Christ, J. M., 1969).

5.2.5 Library service theory of Harris.

The theory of library service focuses on the library as a consumer of high culture rather than as primarily a producer of civilization, responsible for transmitting and reproducing culture in printed form. The theory opposes: (1) a positivistic epistemology focusing on apolitical scientific study of library management, and (2) the pluralistic view that librarians must be neutral in serving patrons, silent on social, economic, and cultural issues (Harris, M., 1986).

5.2.6 Reference theories.

The theory of basic reference offers: (1) conciliation by minimizing the conflict between sciences and humanities, (2) a definition of the generic book that includes all forms of recorded knowledge, (3) balance between retrieval of information and initiation of inquiry (i.e., between the extremes of doing nothing or doing everything for a patron), and (4) an encyclopedic approach to knowledge (Shores, L., 1958).

Modern reference service is based on three assumptions: (1) maximum client-centered service, (2) provision of specific information, and (3) integrated reference service based on empirical findings (Wagers, R., 1978).

Before the 1930s reference service was not based on any theoretical concepts; in 1930 Wyer provided first analyses of reference attitudes. The theory should include the nature, purpose, scope, and terminology of reference work and its relations to other subjects (Whittaker, K., 1977).

5.3 Examples of disciplines and theories related to LIS.

5.3.1 Cognitive science.

Cognitive science is an empirical discipline concerned with information science relations to intelligence in a natural and social environment. It is a formalistic, computer-formulated group of theories, a top-down analysis and phenomenological study of meaningful behavior. Its objectives are to provide (1) abstract description of mental processes, (2) exploration of physical systems, (3) plausibility of mental models, and (4) a neuro-physiological and a biological mechanism in cognition. In information theory cognitive science describes relations between physical properties, the maximum rate of information processing, and information transfer regardless of its meaning (Pylyshyn, Z. W., 1983).

Cognitive structures and processes are represented by a number of theories: (1) psychoanalytical (the theory of learning about ego involvement in the processes), (2) field theory (the organized nature of perception), (3) scheme theory (based on past experiences; and (4) cognitive personality (organized neural structures) (Bieri, J., 1971).

5.3.2 Domain theory of Kouzes and Mico.

Domain theory is a sphere of influence or control claimed by a social entity. It consists of three domains: (1) policy based on participative management, (2) management facilitating service aspects of organization, and (3) the service domain, which is client-oriented and self-autonomous. The theory is recommended for evaluation of library organization (White, D. A. & T. D. Wilson, 1984).

5.3.3 General Systems theory.

General systems theory, according to some writers, should replace traditional sociological models in librarianship, because it is more open and more hospitable to changes (Hanks, G. & C. J. Schmidt, 1975). It provides a scientific explanation of "wholes" and "wholeness," contradicting the notion of rationalism that all natural phenomena are explained in terms of physics. According to general systems theories, separate entities can unite to form a new entity of higher complexity. Librarianship is based on an open system in constant interrelationships between various elements within their environments (Foskett, D. J., 1972).

However, the takeover mentality and its failure to distinguish data systems (transmission of signals) from idea systems (intersubjective communication of thoughts) call for replacing systems theory (focusing on controlled manipulation of physical data) with symbolic interactionism (explaining how mind communicates with other minds through communication of ideas) (Wright, H. C., 1984b).

5.3.4 Information theories.

These theories are used as criteria for choosing probability distribution, as a determination of the degree of uncertainty, and as a message of information acquisition (Tribus, M., 1083). For example, the engineering theory of information is based on reduction of uncertainty; the newer theories maintain that humans pick up information directly by perceiving information invariances, thus shifting the concept of information from that of uncertainty to certainty (Strong, G. W., 1982).

5.3.5 Metatheory.

Metatheory facilitates creation of specific theories and delivery of their products. It also addresses idiosyncrasies of each component theory. Statements about information in this theory can be (a) causal, non-analytical, descriptive based on naive realism, (b) macroscopic, analytical, pragmatic based on empiricism; or (c) microscopic: analytical and practical explanation based on philosophical rationalism. Relations between these levels are of correspondence, not equivalence (Dow, J. T., 1977).

5.3.6 Metascience.

Metascience is defined as an organization of knowledge records with a knowledge base (i.e., specialized professional knowledge), focusing on form rather than content. Metascience can be structural, semiotic, or based on systems theory. It applies to librarianship by focusing on (a) an organizational structure of knowledge, (2) patterns of information use, and (3) the theory of intellectual freedom (Winter, M. F., 1988).

Some authors argue that theoretical knowledge of librarianship cannot be based on Kaplan's concept of library metascience, in which subject matter is provided not by nature but by innate ideas, because library methodology is only bibliographic. However, librarianship can be considered a metascience, interpreted by Otten and Debon as a synthesis of various disciplines into one theory. Librarianship is well suited for that function by possessing a variety of bibliographic methods for locating, selecting and synthesizing relevant theories of other disciplines (Shaughnessy, T. W., 1976).

5.3.7 Management theories.

The field of management of information manages information about records in order to manage the records themselves (Durr, W. T., 1988.)

Early 19th-century bureaucracy was simple, with minimal governmental interference. Managerial professionalism emerged in the 1930s, expanding public services and governmental controls. Administration was defined as POSTCORB (Planning, Organization, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, Budgeting). The human relations movement began at the same time, focusing on personnel relations. In 1950 a number of new theories appeared: operations research (mechanization, computers and simulation); systems analysis (studying the nature of the organization); organizational theories (interdisciplinarity of organization). B. Goldstein considered changes as a constant social reality; D. L. Raphael perceived the system as a point of view integrating statistically "structure" with dynamic function and the library system as homeostatic (controlled by feedback), goal-oriented, and constantly changing. Advances in the theory of management were endorsed and expanded by library theoreticians, but were slowly and reluctantly accepted by practicing librarians (Harlow, N. et al., 1969).

Staff morale in libraries is discussed in terms of activities regulating procedures, operations, and guiding principles in a contextual environment (Nitecki, J. Z., 1984a), while austerity in library management is analyzed in terms of its impact on policies, services, and processes (Nitecki, J. Z., 1984b).

Theories of motivating human behavior that relate to librarianship include: (1) the association theory of trial and error, based on need reduction and stimulus-response concept, (2) cognitive theory, focusing on socially learned motivation (e.g., goals), (3) achievement theory, concentrating on accomplishment of success and avoidance of failure, (4) humanistic theory, considering motivation based on psychological and esthetic needs. All the above theories apply to the educational role of librarians in library instruction (Rogers, S. J., 1979).

Theory of management is represented in metalibrarianship by: (1) the nature of library administration (a procedural dimension), (2) the contextual service-oriented environment, and (3) the conceptual, theoretical level of the discipline (Nitecki, J. Z., 1980a).

5.3.8 Middle Range theory.

Middle range theory is a low-level theoretical statement intermediate to a general system theory, too remote for empirical generalizations and too descriptive for particular situations. It is based on F. Bacon's "middle axiom" and considers each theory a building block in system theories, guiding empirical research by serving as an intermediary theory and ending in special theories by consolidating empirical findings (Roole, H., 1985).

5.3.9 Organizational theory.

Functional integration is the general theory of organization that combines functional specialization with direct authority relationships, such as educational involvement of libraries (Dimock, M. E., 1938).

Three models of organization are identified: (1) the rational model (a hierarchical pattern of authority that underestimates irrational factors); (2) the natural system model (focus on the importance of a peer group, underestimating the impact of formal organization); (3) the structural model (synthesis and harmony between the other two models are based on a dichotomy of rational and irrational, discipline and autonomy, formal and informal relations). Libraries tend to follow the rational-bureaucratic model, modified by democratic emotional aspects (Knapp, P. B., 1973).

5.3.10 Phenomenology.

Phenomenology is a non-quantitative or qualitative philosophy, focusing on the appearance rather than the actual reality, rejecting scientific method as inadequate to explain social phenomena. Facts and objects cannot exist without man's consciousness, hence subjective personal experiences should be the main object of philosophical inquiry. It is relevant to librarianship, which is considered a suborganization of society, with information as a derived demand, not as a commodity demanded for its own sake. Librarians should shift their attention from means to ends, by adopting the epistemological focus on the study of patrons rather than of things, by redefining subject-object relationships, and by concentrating on concerns and care of library services rather than simple objectivity (Glossop, M., 1978).

5.3.11 Piaget's theory.

In Piaget's developmental theory of knowledge, information is of two kinds: (1) a coded fact, a figurative aspect of knowledge, or (b) a process of knowledge, its operative aspect. Figurative knowing is a static aspect of a particular configuration in a given situation. The operative aspect focuses on what is general and given. Assimilation is an inner-directive process from a particular object to general schemes. Accommodation is an outer-directed process from a general schema to particular content. The commodity of information is relative; any symbol is meaningful only in relation to an operative understanding, which, when changed, also changes the symbols. This is the meaning of material symbols (Furt, H. G., 1974).

5.3.12 Popper theory of objective knowledge.

Popper's taxonomy identifies the physical world (World 1), the world of conscious experiences (World 2) and the logical content of human theories, ideas and production (World 3). The interaction between ourselves and the third world provides for a growth of objective knowledge (Popper, K., 1972; Neill, S., 1985b).

Library records are regarded as part of World 3, and recorded knowledge interprets relations between World 2 and World 3. Records become independent of the knowing subject. This model is criticized for confusing 'information' with 'sense-data (Brookes, B. C., 1980a).

Popper also introduced the falsifying law, which is of a too- low level of universality to explain the validity of the theory tested, but which will suggest a way of refuting that theory as false (Popper, K. R., 1972). The applicability of that law in library theory is questioned as impractical.

5.3.13 Sociology of knowledge.

Sociology of knowledge is a study of relations between thought and society. In librarianship the interpretation and classification of knowledge were and are socially relevant, with the perception of needs and behavior related to sociology of knowledge (Holroyd, G., 1972).

5.4 Selected Models.

5.4.1 Computer and Information Science Model.

Computer information science (CIS), the model of mechanical pragmatic meaning, is defined as a "pragmatically symbolized object"; its paradigms are social decisions concerning an ideology's proper course of action (Gorn, S., 1983a).

It focuses on interdependence of symbol systems and on the process of interpreting them in terms of cybernetic pragmatism, which considers what can and cannot be mechanized. CIS draws from engineering, mathematics, philosophy, psychology, and linguistics. Its principles include: (1) Ockham simplicity, (2) memory flow, (3) steady state (stability), (4) scatter of information, (5) transitional behavior, (6) growth (heuristic), and (7) specialized education (Gorn, S., 1967).

5.4.2 Common-sense approach models.

Common sense provides a metaphysical recognition of simple elements in complex situations. Three views of common sense are: (1) as conceptual generalization (metaphysical predicates), (2) as contextual tradition (cultural environment), and (3) as common sense process (pragmatically analyzed actions) (Nitecki, J. Z., 1987a).

5.4.3 Dervin's communication model.

The model consists of information describing reality by focusing on the individual user of information as its creator: Information 1 (data describing the external part of an individuals' own image of reality), Information 2 (ideas about the structure of internal reality), and Information 3 (subjective perception of reality based on behavior that selects information) (Neill, S., 1987b). Electronic media incorporate ends (goal accomplishment) without providing means for attaining them. Three such basic means are identified: (1) information about alternative means to achieve an outcome, (2) information about criteria with which to evaluate the means, and (3) data that allow criteria to be applied to means for the final decision (Dervin, B., 1976).

5.4.4 Barfield's epistemology.

Barfield's epistemological approach is applied to the study of the nature of library science. It opposes the empirical and the positivistic approaches, Descarte's mechanical interpretation, and Popper's scientific approach to history. It suggests instead a metaphorical interpretation of reality, which internalizes knowledge and makes it intuitive and immediate by expanding intellectual consciousness (Menzel, J. P., 1972).

5.4.5 Shera's social epistemology.

Shera's social epistemology (macrobibliology) bridges library and information science by exploring the role of bibliography in communication. Here the bibliography is substituted for graphic communication; it provides situational analysis (essential information) and analysis of information units. Social epistemology is reinforced by Goffman's epidemiological theory of dissemination of knowledge and Bradford's law of scatter (Brookes, B. C., 1973). The model stresses relations of knowledge to society but overlooks society's impact on knowledge (Benge, R. C., 1957; Foskett, D. J., 1968).

Shera defined librarianship as a trinity of acquisition, organization of knowledge, and service, with information science contributing to librarianship only in matters of organization by arranging and processing records of communication and their use (Wright, H. C., 1988). He viewed the librarian as mediator among books-society-graphic records (Czopek, P., 1984).

The model may not be helpful to librarians in mediation between people and records, unless its epistemology excludes the concept of "maximization of utility," but then, that kind of epistemology is not needed (Wilson, Patrick, 1973).

5.4.6 Epistemo-dynamics discipline.

There is an anticipation of the emergence of new discipline, "epistemo-dynamics" as a base for information science. It will study knowledge processes, its growth, and controls (Kochen, M., 1969).

5.4.7 Genetic and Data models.

There is an equivalence between biotic and organizational systems in the context of Darwinian evolution. Genetic material in the organism is functionally equivalent to the content of the data model. Darwinian selection is either creative (positive impact) or suppressing (negative feedback).

5.4.8 Information models.

5.4.8.1 Information paradigms.

The synthetic model of information paradigm is based on the assumption that the primary library roles are acquisition, storage, organization, and retrieval of information. The model overlooks other library functions (e.g., reading services), overemphasizing the role of the computer by confusing information with knowledge (Apostle, R. & B. Raymond, 1986).

5.4.8.2 Cognitive models.

Three cognitive models of information transfer processes are based on linguistic analysis of the word 'information' as: (1) direct communication, (2) individual communication, and (3) information-selective model of an information user. These models are based on weak empirical data, hence the field lacks a coherent model of information transfer per se (Green, R., 1991).

5.4.8.3 Fairthorne's information flow model.

This model of information flow consists of a number of notifications (mention and delivery of recorded messages) and relationships between them. In the model, the amount of information measures not the "stuff," but relations.

A code is an indicator of choice made from the message; a message is an aggregate of entities. Fairthorne's 'marking and parking' are defined by site, destination, code, and message. Librarians deliver messages and are concerned about the subjects of discourse (Fairthorne, R.A., 1967). The model of twenty triads is based on a mathematical approach free of semantical and epistemological implications in information flow (Fairthorne, R. A., 1968a).

5.4.8.4 Information management models.

Models in information management may be: mechanistic (hierarchical structure); cybernetic (open system); tribal (rites and ceremonies); and political (coalitions and conflicts) (Jellis, J., 1988).

5.4.9 Librametry.

There seems to be a need for a new discipline, termed 'librametry', relevant to a given period, changing periodically to reflect changing society (Ranganathan, S. R., 1948).

5.4.10 Library models.

Two models of librarianship are in conflict: (a) one based on market ideology and information as a commodity (Wasserman, Pauline Wilson), and (b) the other, based on self-reliance on the individual and less dependency on the market system (Toffler, Illich; Berry, J. J., 1981).

5.4.10.1 Shaw's library-college model.

Library college is the situation when college is library and library is a college. The concept is based on students' independent study at their individual pace, with librarians guiding them in the literature of liberal education (Shores, L., 1966). It is learning-centered, considering the library as the single most important instrument in the learning processes, by providing access to wide range of subjects (Schuster, M., 1977).

The model focuses on (a) the generic book that encompasses all recorded knowledge in all formats, and (b) the opportunities provided by the library to students solving their own problems by using their intellectual abilities (Shores, L., 1975). It stresses learning through interaction among faculty, administration, and students, considering media formats as extensions of a book.

The model is not accepted by Lukenbill because teachers lack library expertise (re bibliography) and librarians do not have teaching expertise (re subject areas) (Luknebill, W. R., 1983).

5.4.10.2 Library and learning models.

Libraries and learning are united by independence of different intellectual activities and structural levels of preference and learning. Learning can be: (1) holistic (comprehensive), (2) serialist (operational), (3) versatile (adapting either of the above approaches), (4) syllabus-bound (organized, instructed), or (5) syllabus-free (less structured).

The library learning model is based on (1) provision of prestructured ideas and information, (2) access to a variety of references on a given subject, (3) adjustment of the environment to the patron's needs, and (4) the patron's perception of independent learning (Ford, N., 1979).

5.4.10.3 Gore's no growth model.

This model is based on the fixed size of a collection with changing contents. In the right-size collection, both the number of unused books and the number of complaints about the use of the collection are low (Gore, D., 1981).

5.4.10.4 Research models.

Library research is evenly divided among studies of service, storage, and retrieval. They use empirical strategies half of the time, followed by survey method. What was notable in the period from 1965 to 1985 was the loss of interest in methodology and a shift from classification and indexing to information retrieval (Jarvelin, K. & P. Vakkari, 1991).

Three approaches to the research in library and information science are: (1) the positivistic method, most popular among librarians, is experimental, ex post facto, descriptive, and empirical, testing hypotheses; (2) constructivism consists of reconstruction of reality in human mind and includes: (a) cognitivists Belkin, DeMey, and Ellis, (b) phenomenologists and hermeneuticians Benediktsson and Bennett; (c) symbolic interactionist C. H.Wright, (d) reader-oriented theorists De Beer, Neill, and J. Z. Nitecki; (e) dialecticians Bergen, J. Z. Nitecki, and Dick; (3) critical theorists who focus on the influence of ideology and politics on experience, represented by neo-Marxists and feminists (Dick, A. L., 1993).

Library research is considered dialectically as an abstract process in theory-building, or as a means of solving problems (Freeman, M. S., 1985).

(a) Bohm's holomovement model deals with the fragmentation of research. "The Implicated Order of the Holomovement" is a potential context for library theory. Knowledge is an organic whole that contradicts entropy (assuming that everything is between initial maximum and terminal minimum of energy) by (a) its self-ordering processes, and (b) by the evidence of human constant improvement with decreasing energy (a metaphysical universe of human knowledge).

In mechanistic order, volumes and titles are considered as individual, physical units, but in the holomovement model, titles, representing unique subjects, exist in the context of abstract aggregate of the total collection. Individual titles, citing each other, together represent the total knowledge, while volumes, as physical units, merely duplicate the same context. The wholeness of flowing movement is known only implicitly; the organization of knowledge in libraries embodies implicative order in the contextual world view that is never defined because everything is a part of it, described by the integrative law of underlying order (Beagle, D., 1988).

(b) The conceptual model of the research library consists of (1) information handling, (2) access, (3) evaluation of users' needs, and (4) delivery of services and programs. Each of its components is characterized by its own (1) focus, (2) function, (3) resources, (4) staffing, (5) skills, and (6) results. Boundaries between the components will be constantly adapted to the changing needs of library patrons (Woodsworth, A. et al., 1989).

5.4.11 Linguistic model of communication.

The linguistic model of communication focuses on the importance of a dialogue between the librarian and the patron, leading to a negotiated answer to the patron's question (Yngwe, V. H., 1981).

5.4.12 Samples' mind model.

In Samples' model a metaphorical mind is interpreted as a mirror image of the rational mind. The division of brain into the left cerebral hemisphere as logical organizer and the right hemisphere as holistic preceptor of reality is compared to library function of interrelating rational and metaphoric experiences (Samples, B., 1976; Powell, J. W. & A. R. B. Lelieuvre, 1979).

The perception-memory-library-information processes parallel the processes in the brain. Information is taken into a system and held there in a classified form, available for retrieval. The limited capacities of brain and library require selectivity and filtering of information, based on the principle of economy that applies equally to both library and brain systems (McGarry, K. J., 1981).

5.4.13 Nitecki's metalibrarianship.

Metalibrarianship is a model for basic metaphysical essence, epistemological nature, and valuational attributes of relationships between the primary elements: generic carriers of messages, their content, and their recipients in written communication, analyzed on conceptual, contextual, and procedural levels. The model's paradigms extend beyond traditional librarianship by relating to the metaphorical aspects of any recorded communication (Nitecki, J. Z., 1968c, 1970, 1994); it focuses on primary concepts of the domain, not on its specific properties (Nitecki, J. Z., 1980b).

The application of the model is illustrated in the discussion of library public interest in terms of procedural, contextual ,and conceptual viewpoints (Nitecki, J. Z., 1963) and its semantical relations in the library theory (Nitecki, J. Z., 1964).

Fairthorne compares his model, focusing on signaling, with Nitecki's focus on the meaning of relations. To him, knowledge is a discourse; to Nitecki, it is relations known between primitive concepts. Both models deal with the nature of the discipline but they differ in the vantage point of analyses. Harris agrees with Nitecki's conceptualization of the library mission but does not think that it can be harmoniously integrated into a philosophy of librarianship (Harris, M., 1976).

5.4.14 Model of metric discipline.

This model addresses relationships between (a) bibliometrics (a quantitative study of communication processes), (b) infometrics (the mathematical description of information systems), and (c) scienometrics (the science that studies quantitative statistical measurements) (Morales, M., 1985).

5.4.15 Models of reality.

Plato considered reality an absolute form, or as continually changing derivative existence. Forms are never created and information can be called knowledge only when its content is directly related to the reality of forms. Plato would not approve the principle of providing all books to all people because not all are ready to understand them. He also believed that all books represent truth, while librarians believe that each book addresses different truth (White, D. A., 1978).

Boulding's frame of reference is based on individuals' image of reality that consists of: (1) goals, beliefs, knowledge, (2) self-image, (3) plans for coping with the environment in an information-seeking process (Donohew, L. & T. Leonard, 1973).

The intellectual environment is a situation in which individuals integrate their various perceptions of reality into total, integrated knowledge. The environment of reality is three-dimensional: (1) physiological (intellectual stimulation), (2) psychological (unique individuals' perception), and (3) philosophical (conscious awareness) (Nitecki, J. Z., 1988a).

5.4.16 Value-added model of Taylor.

The 'value-added' concept is defined as a frame of reference for analyzing an information system and describing it in terms of interface between practice, technology, the content of an information message, and its users.

The author identified twenty-three related activities, arranged in three categories, and seven major characteristics of the model: its focus, validity, definition, purpose, a means for conveying thinking in the planning system, and its benefits and assistance to users (Taylor, R. S., 1986).

5.5 Principles and laws.

Knowledge of librarianship should be organized in abstract principles. "Specialization in generalism" is not enough; a philosophy of librarianship must express intellectual problems of the profession (Goode, W. J., 1961).

Listed here are selected library laws extracted from the compendium in Part Two of this study.

5.5.1 Cosmonomic laws.

The philosophy of cosmonomic laws when applied to analyses of librarianship, assumes that (a) all theoretical thoughts proceed from basic motives, (b) autonomous thoughts do not exist, and (c) theoretical thoughts contain analyses of different aspects of reality, expressed integrally in prehistorical thought (Pansegrouw, J. G., 1988).

5.5.2 Hermeneutics.

Hermeneutic philosophy is based on the notion of a "principle of effective history" (Hans-Georg Gadamer), implying that the text throughout history was a subject of interpretation, generating new experiences; hence our views today are imposed on us, unconsciously by the effect of historical interpretation (Hoel, I. H. A. L., 1991).

5.5.3 Ranganathan's laws.

Ranganathan's "Five Laws" state that: (1) books are for use, (2) every reader has his book, (3) every book has its reader, (4) the reader's time is to be saved, and (5) the library is a growing organism (Ranganathan, S. R., 1931).

The laws describe an operational philosophy of librarianship and provide rules for library organization and management (Ranganathan, S. E., 1963). They are, however, considered not scientific laws but moral ideas about library conduct and service (Benge, R. C., 1957). Ashworth suggested the sixth law: "stop the user from wasting time" (Ashworth, W., 1979). Vickery identified still more laws: (7) save the user's time, (8) no information system is self-sufficient, (9) each information service is only a part of communication system, (10) information should be subsidized by the user in proportion to the benefits received, (11) the system should be cost effective, and (12) the system should be adaptable to change (Vickery, B., 1987).

Ranganathan's approach to librarianship was holistic (Foskett, D. J., 1968). His overall contribution was more as a leader than an inventor, as an organizer rather than a creator. His philosophy was based on (1) the Vendic notion of unity of knowledge, and (2) normative principles of library science adapted from scientific methodology. The five laws are norms and guiding ideas, and colon classification is a self-perpetuating system (Satij A. P. and R. N. Sharma, 1986).

5.5.4 The principle of recall and precision.

This principle states that as the total number of citations generated by searching increases (recall), the number of useful citations (precision) also increases (Cleverdon). The recall and precision of the search depend on the skill of the searchers and their knowledge of the indexing system. These criteria can also be used in evaluating computer-assisted searches for information (Shoaf, E. C., 1988).

5.5.5 Zipff principle.

The "principle of least effort" (G. Zipff, 1949) means that each individual selects the least expensive (in effort) course of action. It is already applied in Mooers' law of information retrieval (information retrieval is determined by the intensity of desire for information), in Cutter's convenience of the reader, and in Ranganathan's "save the time of the reader" law.

In science, the principle is illustrated by quantum mechanics and a holistic view in psychology. This principle can unify library research and practice (Bierbaum, E. A., 1990).

5.6 Application of Methodology to LIS; Examples.

Methodology is a way of structuring one's own thinking and action. Five perspectives on methodology are identified: (1) provision-oriented: a positivistic philosophy that there is one best way of performance, (2) task-oriented: useful in designing information, (3) process-oriented: incorporates social and psychological needs, (4) issue-oriented: a hermeneutic philosophy of understanding reality, and (5) the holistic perspective of interdependence between individual elements and the rest of the system (Jayaranta, M, 1988).

Process, more than form, defines life situations; form is a residue of a process. The library is a processual object of communication processes, and information is not a thing, but a relation between matter and energy, a negative entropy (Weiskel, T. C., 1986).

Distinction is made between the methods of natural sciences and that of social and humanistic knowledge. Methods of science are effective in obtaining knowledge about material aspects of reality only. The relations of the material world, as perceived by the senses, to the abstract world of thoughts has not been resolved (Wright, H. C., 1982a).

5.6.1 Andragogy.

Philosophy of library service and adult education was broadened by emphasis on the importance of the individual in democratic society (Wilson, L. R., 1953).

Andragogy is a method of teaching adults that is based on mutual respect and informal relations, regarding older patrons as individual and active participants. In contrast, pedagogy is an authority-oriented, formal method that depends on the instructor (Sheridan, J., 1986).

5.6.2 Comparative librarianship.

Comparative librarianship is a method of inquiry focusing on the systematic analysis of library development and practice in social context. It involves cross-cultural comparison and explanation of similarities and differences among different countries.

International librarianship is related to but not similar to comparative librarianship: its focus is on activities among libraries in different countries, promoting and evaluating library services (Rogers, A. R., 1984a).

Comparative librarianship performs an important function in social reforms by providing comparison with other philosophies of librarianship (Shores, L., 1970). It evolved in four stages as: (1) a part of metalibrary philosophy and theory underlying library practice throughout the world, (2) a world study of comparative librarianship, (3) global librarianship, focusing on human information needs, and (4) as extraterrestrial librarianship, a logical outgrowth of global librarianship.

Philosophy of librarianship includes nature, purpose, origin, categories, interacting variables, and development -- all in the context of comparative librarianship.

Four laws of world librarianship are suggested: (1) of appropriateness (relative to the country's culture), (2) of interdependence (quality of librarianship reflected in all libraries), (3) of partial convergence (standardization), and (4) of convergence (forming global librarianship (Krzys R. & G. Litton, 1983).

Western philosophy is based on free inquiry of how to organize material effectively and teach patrons how to help themselves. Soviet philosophy of librarianship focused not on a free inquiry but on the indoctrination of official views (Shores, A. L., 1955). This approach can be understood only in the context of communist political theory. As an integral part of a socialistic education, it was responsible for implementing Marxian-Leninist viewpoint, rejecting neutrality and objectivity of Western philosophy of librarianship (Rovelstead, M., 1974).

5.6.3 Scientific methodology.

Application of scientific methodology to librarianship is criticized for being intolerant, dehumanizing the discipline by stressing things and technology rather than values, and by turning thinking into manipulative processes. The true librarianship is based not on action but on knowledge about human life. The scientific approach left unresolved the problem of relating the material, sense-perceived world to a form-world of abstract thought (Wright, H. C., 1982).

5.6.4 Structural methodology.

Structural method consists of the three interrelated clusters: use (demand), knowledge (subject) and librarianship (subject literature); and of the three actions: planning (priorities), implementation (accessibility) and evaluation (in terms of goals). 'Literary statics' (a point in time) and its dynamics (a period of time) are analyzed by bibliometrics in terms of 'properties' (knowledge classes) and sequences (order). The structuralists are interested in the form rather than content of literature (Baugham, J. C., 1977).

5.6.5 Systems methodology.

System thinking is a point of view and a methodology emerging from it. Systems can be philosophical, analytical, or empirical, with a component of research and engineering. Among significant contributors are Bertelanffy's general systems theory; Ackoff's pragmatic and methodological research, Churchman's hierarchy in systems, and Simin's system design and testing (Mattessich, R., 1982).