Nitecki, Joseph Z. 1995. Philosophical Aspects of Library Information Science in Retrospect. Volume 2 of The Nitecki Trilogy . Also Available as ERIC 381 162.

4.0 Professional issues.

4.1.1 Metaphysical definitions.

The librarian's professional role is defined by the concept of knowledge involved; the role changed throughout history only to the degree of changing specialization (Winger, H. W., 1961). For example, the librarian's role in adult services is determined by a philosophy of adult education based on the democratic idea of self-education (Cushman, J., 1962). However, according to some writers, since a philosophical definition of librarianship does not imply a dedication to save human life, but books, librarianship is not a profession ((Levine, M. M., 1973). Humanistic librarianship is a calling similar to that of the physician's; it is dedicated to scholarship and service characterized by passion for books (DuBois, P. Z., 1979).

Library philosophy should address the library's role in the preservation and maintenance of democratic ideals, and in library relations to government. The library is a sounding board for community interests, and librarians are intellectual leaders, mediating community's conflicting wants and needs (Carnovsky, L., 1944). Mediation is a kind of intellectual engineering between subjects and bibliographic knowledge. The library's function is to 'maximize the effective social utilization of the graphic records of civilization'; it is a part of a communication system, and any theory of librarianship must be related to the interrogative communication system, as contrasted with a mass declarative communication in which a communicator chooses and communicates messages (Egan, M., et al., 1956). Mediation also occurs between books and readers, with librarians acting as bookmen (Vickery, B. C., 1970).

4.1.2 Epistemological characteristics.

Library historians shifted their attention from fact- gathering to the study of librarianship in the context of library environment. The library role in democracy is to provide a meeting ground for poor and rich participation by voting in society's affairs, and to serve as a substitute for the town hall in political education (Ditzion, S., 1947).

The paradox of librarianship lies in the attention given to each individual patron's viewpoint, considering at the same time all patrons as one unit in collection-development policies. Simultaneous activism and neutrality are necessitated by a need to obtain adequate moral and administrative financial support.

4.2 Roles.

4.2.1 Roles of libraries and librarians.

The roles of librarians and libraries are viewed differently by different groups. To administrators, librarians contribute to the social structure of the community; to faculty, libraries are the depositories of research information supporting their own research; to librarians, libraries are storehouses of information important to their communities (Nitecki, D., 1993). The library's role in the community college is weakened by students' focus on testable data rather than on a coherent body of knowledge (Ray, D., 1989).

The librarian's role in promoting culture is affected by the relationship between the media and their cultural background (Burke, R. A., 1953) and the realization that not everyone is fully capable of benefitting from library services (Day, A., 1975).

In their role as book selectors librarians should be the literary critics in every area of learning (Holiday, S. C., 1939), providing clarifications to patrons on confusing issues (Gregory, L. H., 1959).

The educational role of librarians is evident in that they provide an environment for the patron's self-education and services that are more comprehensive and inclusive that those offered by other institutions (Henry, W. E., 1917). However, librarians are not teachers. Teachers disseminate knowledge through reading by interpreting the material's content or graphic records. The librarian disseminates the content of the records by processing and servicing them, not by teaching (Wilson, Pauline, 1979). The librarian's role is compared to that of a broker of resources (Hezel L. & A. R. Jacobson, 1987).

The librarian's function is to connect the right person with the right book, not to decide arbitrarily what to select for the collection, and not to be preoccupied with technology (Clayton, R. L., 1940).

Librarians are responsible not only for sharing resources with other libraries but also for providing directly material unique to their own patrons (Bryant, D. W., 1975).

4.2.2 Roles of reference librarians.

The primary role of reference librarians is to facilitate interpersonal communication between the library patron and themselves (Vavrek, B .F., 1974); it is developed in stages.

Reference librarians grasp the salient characteristics of many subject areas in general, rather than in depth (Faison, G. H., 1961).

The concept of personal assistance to patrons was introduced by S. S. Green in 1876; in 1891 the term changed to 'reference work', focusing on subject-requests only; by 1920 the reference librarian served as an intermediary between reader and book, focusing on understanding the reader's needs (J. I. Wyer); the invisible barrier between reference librarian and patron was discussed in 1966 (E. Mount); the negotiating approach was analyzed in 1968 (R. Taylor), and nonverbal communication in 1970. Dervin stressed an equal partnership between the reference librarian and the patron, determined by their perception of reality (Bunge, C. A., 1984).

The negotiating role of the reference librarian involves deciphering (a) patrons' visceral and unexpressed needs, (b) their conscious description of needs, (c) the personal characteristics of the inquirer, (d) understanding the relationship between the inquiry and library file organization, and (e) visualizing the anticipated answer (Taylor, R. S., 1968). Their functions are (1) skillful formal questioning, (2) 'mind-reading' of patrons' needs, (3) information-seeking negotiations with patrons, (4) focus on inquirers' own perception of reality, (5) the therapist role, and (6) a partnership with the patron (Bunge, C., A., 1984). The function is limited by the extent of the patron's surface information wants and needs (Wilson, Patrick, 1986).

The personality of the reference librarian is described in terms of Indian mystic philosophy: they should be sociable and helpful, capable of controlling their ego, and devoted to duty and integrity (Rahman, A., 1961).

4.3.3 Roles of special librarians.

The system professionals work with things, not ideas (Neill, S., 1980). The professional work of the Christian librarian provides a practical expression of justice, obedience, and Christian charity. His relations with patrons reflect impersonal intimacy and objective communication (Canfield, F. X., 1960).

Dissemination of information should be the function of a subject specialist (not a bibliographer) by providing reference assistance and advice. The present library organizes its records by topics, not by problems (Wilson, Patrick, 1973).

The Instructional Material Center is a school department. Its role is to provide curriculum-related printed and visual material for students and teachers, based on the concept of learning creative inquiry and understanding the nature of information needs (Taylor, K. J., 1968).

The philosophy of children's service refers to the intellectual scope of the services, which is broader than the content of children's books (P. Wilson), by extending it to the knowledge of society at large (Hektoen, F., 1982).

Library services to the underprivileged and poor are a part of the librarian's professional responsibility to serve the information needs of the whole community (Hendry, J. D., 1988).

4.2.4 The leadership role.

As custodians of the intellectual arsenal of democracy, librarians must provide active leadership in safeguarding and advancing the democratic heritage (Powell, B. E., 1960). The anti-intellectualism of American universities was created by activist faculty and students' demands for a pragmatic approach, carrier orientation, and focus on therapeutic sensitivity to students' demands for participation in university governance. The demands weakened the level of university scholarship and had a significant impact on the definition of the library's role in academe (Curtis, P., 1970).

4.2.5 The roles of the public library.

Education, economics, urbanization, and societal complexity were the primary factors in the development of the American public library. The modern period began in the second half of the 19th century, with the opening of libraries to the public, based on the liberal philosophy of J. S. Mill's self-help, philanthropy, and rejection of state interference. In the 19th century J. N. Larned's philosophy advocated material advancement, practical acquisition of knowledge, and spiritual advocacy of good literature (Ditzion, S., 1943). In the 20th century the focus shifted to technology, with libraries becoming laboratories of social change and negating political neutrality by involvement in politics (Gerard, D. E., 1978).

The motives for the development of American public library systems are interpreted by Borden as democratic, educational, and social, by Wellard as a function of philanthropy and the reform movement, and by Orman as economic demands for service (Wilson, L. R., 1936). Historical revisionism of that period points to its anti-intentional, anti-traditional, partisan, and ideological motivation (Harwell, R. & R. Michener, 1974). This viewpoint is rejected by other scholars who argue that the founding fathers of the public library movement were educated intellectual leaders of ordinary people, not populists; they followed 19th century belief in the willingness of citizens to transform self-interest into common good. The motive was neither elitist nor intellectual. American intellectuals of those days developed a populist philosophy based on a belief in the superior morality of ordinary people (P. Dain, 1975).

The functions and objectives of the public library must be interpreted in the context of its role in the community, the role that would justify governmental support but also assure libraries' own independence (Joeckel, C. B., 1933). The public library policy that should be of prime concern to librarians includes the study of obstacles to the librarian's role in spreading the use of information (Mayer, H., 1974). It should gradually divert recreational reading habits of its patrons from 'trash' to light literature (Fletcher, W. I., 1894). The values of public-library policies are often weakened by missions that are based on parochial interests of individual libraries (Oracio, L. V., 1983)

The power of the public library lies in its capability to enlighten patrons by making them aware of world realities (Garrison, G. J., 1934). Success or failure is measured by library growth or stagnation; the public library will disappear if it does not meet social needs (Shaw, R. R., 1967).

4.3 Library education.

4.3.1 Metaphysical definitions.

Philosophy of library education is an integral part of culture and society, providing the base for library practice (Chisholm, M., 1975). Underlying that philosophy is a need for a fundamental course which would teach understanding of the information user, the theory of technology, and its application in practice (Woodward, D., 1988). Philosophy is often used as a synonym of the 'text' of documents that discuss library educational programs (Bunge, C. A., 1992).

4.3.2 Epistemological characteristics.

One of the major influences on American educational philosophy was the instrumental thinking of John Dewey, which refers to knowledge gained from cooperation between individuals and their environment, and which can be learned by doing (Carlson, A. D., 1990).

Focus on library education developed from the 19th-century concept of equal education and promotion of public libraries. With the Supreme Court decision to eliminate racial segregation (1954) it shifted from providing equal education to its effects on students, questioning the original intent of the free school movement (Molz, K., 1979).

The function of the library school is not to impart narrowly defined skills, but to provide students with sets of criteria needed to perform their duties and to screen candidates that do not meet the requirements of the profession (Wasserman, P., 1969).

It requires understanding the distinction between: (1) intellectualism as a content (historical meaning) and as style (individual sensitivity), (2) education for content and for conviction, (3) knowing and feeling about right things, and (4) curriculum and sensitivity content. What is important is relevance, commitment, and belief in the social function of a library (Molz, K., 1970).

Major issues in library education are presented in the form of dichotomies: service vs. research, theory vs. practice, library needs vs. parent-institution interests, the generalist vs. the specialist, and issues of paraprofessionals, demographic representation of community, and comparative librarianship (Auld, L. W. S., 1990). They all demonstrate a need to examine traditional library educational philosophy in order to accommodate new technological changes (Williams, R. V. and M. J. K. Zacherts, 1986). However, recent changes in library education were not fundamental: some modifications followed the changing environment, affected by new technology, but not the sources of authority (Wiegand, W. A., 1986).

Social realities relevant to library education include: (1) the variety of librarians' social roles, (2) functions determined by social environment, (3) indoctrination, (4) the impact of information technology, and (5) reacting attitudes of librarians (Colson, J. C., 1980).

A distinction is made between training in the practice of librarianship and education in library objectives. In library schools, the faculty follows practitioners' preference for the former in order to secure employment for their students. Yet a number of years of experience is not the same as one experience repeated number of times (White, H. S., 1983).

Library education should be broad, reflecting the philosophy of the discipline. It is suggested that in an introductory course to librarianship, Plato's Republic can replace the traditional textbook, because of its timeless ideas and a system approach based on a dialectic method of question-answer analyses (Swigger, K. & F. E. Turner, 1986). The education should also concentrate on development, processes, and the perception of problems and library responses to them. The historical approach reviews the development of librarianship in an environmental context (Colson, J.C ., 1983).

Library education should focus on technical know-how. The foundation course should include purpose, methods, selection, technical processes, administration, basic information services and sociology of librarianship (Kunze, H., 1973); it should focus on decision-makers, not on technicians. Learning is a trial-and-error process with errors often providing the first step in learning the process of understanding (Neill, S. D., 1973).

An appeal is made for the study of classical library contributions to the discipline's intellectual philosophy. Sociology, which began at the same time as librarianship, has already built its theory based on historical roots, while librarianship is still searching for its own theory (Pierce, S. J., 1992).

A trading stamp mentality in library education is criticized for focusing on fulfillment of regulations rather than on the mastery of the subject, rejecting philosophy of librarianship as irrelevant to needs of practical librarianship (Stokes, R. B., 1967).

4.3.3 Library school curricula.

Literature on library school curricula is extensive. Here are some samples of what such a curriculum should include.

(a) In Librarianship.

The curriculum is based on a cataloging-selection-reference-administration approach, but should shift from 'how' to 'why', from techniques to philosophy. The ALA recommends inclusion of a core course that would contain knowledge (philosophy, social role, etc.), its environment, bibliographic tools, and skills (Daniel, E. H., 1987).

(b) In Information Science.

The list of subjects to be included in the curriculum is long. The two major areas are: (1) foundation of the discipline (basic concepts, information transfer), information retrieval,

information-use behavior, information services, and training based on marketing philosophy (Browne, M., 1986); and (2) organization and retrieval of information, its environment, information media, systems and technology, evaluation of research methods, and information management that interrelates the above-named subjects in the context of patrons' needs (Taylor, R. S., 1977).

(c) In Library and Information Science.

The LIS curriculum should consist of (1) philosophy of librarianship as a framework for setting priorities and values systems for decision-making, behavior patterns in communication of information, theory of information transfer, organization and management of the information system, research methodology and study of different library functions (Grover, R. J., 1985); (2) the role of library information science in society, information-gathering behavior, theory and practice of information retrieval, and managerial, political, social and technical aspects of library services (Buckland, M.K. 1986); (3) library automation, information storage and retrieval, abstracting, indexing, thesauri, engineering systems, statistics, and interactive computer systems (Fosdick, H., 1978); (4) concepts (nature, role, education and research in information), theory (information retrieval, bibliometrics, recall, relevance, computer function, management, networks, and professional issues) (Davis, C., H., 1981); and (5) interdisciplinary curricula incorporating subject-matter of documentalists (1940), A-V (1950s), and information science (1960s).

The future of the curricula will be determined by the free market. The present trend indicates a change of emphasis from documents to information exchange. In future, research will have to focus on information-content transfer and interaction with users (Garrison, G., 1988).

Archival courses share the same principles with other subdivisions of librarianship, since they differ in techniques only. Focus should be on history of archives, appraisals, management and the archival description (Peace, N. E. & N. F. Chudacoff, 1979).

4.4 Professional status.

Professional status requires: (1) knowledge organized on abstract principles, (2) creation of new knowledge, and (3) control of all knowledge by the profession. Librarianship does not meet these conditions; its knowledge base of 'specialization in generalization' is insufficient, its function to 'reduce the anonymity of books' is not supported by scientific knowledge, and the librarian's knowledge is irrelevant to specialists in other fields (Goode, W. J., 1961).

Interest in professional status is characterized by (1) a focus on self-interest more than on professional responsibilities, (2) preoccupation with the medium, (3) patrons, not librarians, determining what is needed, (4) goals to maximize services which are not compatible with the overall interests of majority of patrons, and (5) a lack of uniformity in formulation of a professional philosophy of commitments (Bundy, M.L. & P. Wasserman, 1968).

Recently there has been a significant increase in discussions of the importance of the role of women in American librarianship (Harris, R., 1993).

The notion that automation was accepted to improve the professional status of librarianship is questioned, since the new technology was applied to the improvement of book processing and literacy (Berry, J. J., 1987c).

4.5 The critique of the profession.

Urquhart demystified library mysteries of operations, the mystiques of its technical jargon, ideas of perpetuity in providing collections for the future, and the notion of dependence on numbers (statistical interpretations). All these myths inhibit change, waste resources, confuse patrons, pollute research, and corrupt library education (Line, M. B., 1975).

Library education is criticized for its overemphasis on information science, for equating paraprofessional tasks with those of librarianship, for poor faculty quality and poor teaching (Gorman, M. A., 1990), and for teaching students archaic procedures with no relevance to a real world (Cohen, A., 1981). Librarians know how to get books to a reader, but not how to bring readers to books (MacLeish, A., 1939).

University administration criticizes library schools for: (1) isolation of the library faculty from other faculty in the university , (2) poor faculty, programs, and research, (3) lack of hard core courses, (4) poor definition of the discipline's scope and international relations, (4) overstress of professional issues, (5) teaching used as a substitution for research, (6) perception of library schools as unessential in the development of information science (Columbia University, 1990).

The personalities of many librarians are not well suited to the profession; they often suffer from inferiority complexes, are sociable, liberal, and non-rigid, but also resist technologies, social changes, and risks (Agada, J., 1984).

The three negative images of librarianship consist of the notions that (1) librarians are not masters of machines, (2) they have low self-esteem, and (3) their profession is characterized by bureaucracy, rigidity, formality, and precedents (McCrum, B. R., 1946).

The superficiality of librarians' knowledge is universal and inevitable, with superimposed special library techniques that do not make them scholars; scholarship can be achieved by librarians on their own time (Shaw, C. B., 1932).

The objection is made to the focus on philosophy rather than on practical skills; librarianship is only a tool in the pursuit of knowledge or information, nothing else (Plaiss, A., 1983).

The desire for professional status and the encouragement of patrons to achieve self-sufficiency in the use of library resources overrides the definition of the professional library purpose and results in deprofessionalization of librarianship (Birdsall, W. F., 1982).

The philosophy of librarianship is weakened by its professional image and unsatisfactory code of ethics (Gupta, R. K., 1969). Instead of useless discussions on library professional status, librarians should accept the indivisibility of knowledge and the need for its interpretation. Assuming that education is based on communication-computation-classification, librarians should focus on the ways computer can help in information storage and retrieval (Kyle, B. R. F., 1963).