CADWELL, A.E., 1986:

Information society is characterized by a high percentage of budget spent on production and distribution of information (F. Machlup), and a shift from agriculture and manufacturing to information services (D. Bell).

The rate of change has no historical precedent, creating an information overload and difficulties in selecting needed information. The planned provision of information for everyone will also result in a loss of privacy, job elimination, social concentration of power and economic isolation between 'haves and haves-not'.

Information is considered as one of many goods determined by its perceived value. Basic need for information about daily living is provided free by libraries. The demand for information related to occupational, commercial educational and other profit enterprises will be determined by the skill and cost in using it.

CALDWELL, W., 1968:

The beginning of libraries was a historical accident. They were created and given raison d'être by circumstances, which since then disappeared, leaving libraries without a sense of mission or direction. Unless related to social needs, definitions of library purpose are high sounding, verbosity, circumlocution and tautology; considering book supply as the library function confusing the concept of service with its purpose.

Following Malinowski's functionalism, the author discusses library purposes in terms of social functions, reflecting the basic social needs and the dynamic forces they generate.

The library purposes are defined in terms of the basic social needs of nutrition, reproduction, bodily comfort, safety, relaxation, movement and growth. Four major social systems address these needs. (1) Education system is based on dissemination of ideas and information; here the library is not only a source of information but also a teaching instrument. (2) Economic agencies produce wealth to meet many of the basic needs; library and information services are essential not only to economic institutions but also to organizations assisting economic agencies, such as government. (3) Communication systems depend on ready access to ideas and information provided by libraries. (4) Recreation system is nowadays monopolized by 'escape' services of television and mass media; a library may increase its contribution by also providing compensatory reading adjusted to the needs of individual patrons.

Important in all the above considerations is the understanding of patrons reading needs rather than presuming what they ought to read. "Only when we basically come to grips with the social forces underlying all we ought to be doing and relate all our activities to fulfilling the role which emerges will we be approaching a true state of professionalism." (p.225)

---- 1970:

Information science differs from librarianship, although it is derived from it. The subject matter of information science in addition to information technology includes: (1) subject analysis of information, (2) electronic data processing, (3) principles of management, (4) sociology of information work, and (5) subject bibliography. Related subjects are: semantics and syntactic analysis, logic and information theory, linguistics, language data processing, and artificial intelligence.

Librarians focus on interaction between people and ideas, communication of recorded knowledge, its origin, production, growth, organization, management and the users of knowledge, their needs and motivations. This in turn requires a study of theories of knowledge, their growth, perception, concept formation, personal acquisition of knowledge, and socio-political forces.

Understanding patrons' needs requires a study of psychology (personality theorization, socialization, learning theories) and social psychology (interpersonal relations, attitudes and changes).

The functions of information scientists are complementary to, but not competing with, librarians. They will use rather than manage libraries, concentrating on the provision of specialized information required by their organization.

CANFIELD, FRANCIS X., 1960:

Professional work of librarians is considered as a practical expression of justice, obedience and Christian charity. The relationships between librarian and patron are based on 'impersonal intimacy', "impersonal in a sense that objectivity prevails; emotionalism and personal prejudices are set aside in the interest of securing the fullest information possible, of

attaining the objectives of truth beyond the personal whims of either librarian or patron." (p. 348)

CAPURRO, RAFAEL, 1985:

The author focuses on issues of production, storage, dissemination and use of specialized information through electronic devices, differentiating between ethical problems and elaboration of a professional code of ethics.

In research, ethics concentrates not only on information but also on its use; in teaching it avoids biased presentations; and in information it addresses abuse of facilities, confidentiality, bias, influence of brokers, vendors, and consideration of information as a social power.

Knowledge is not absolute, it is not separated from its producers and users, hence it involves a plurality of views and goals. Basic is human freedom, interpreted as the openness of human beings to each other and to criticism.

Ethical principles in the dissemination of information include accessibility, confidentiality, and completeness. Most important is not the establishment of a code of ethics but a promotion of discussion on ethical issues. The value of a code itself is doubtful: good people do not need it, bad people will not follow it.

Morality and ethics are not synonymous. Aristotle distinguished between ethics as science and as morality. Russell defined ethics as consisting of general principles which determine, but not to provide, actual rules of conduct. Moore formulated naturalistic fallacy of deducing moral categories from empirical or metaphysical concepts. 'Ought' does not follow from 'is', hence ethics is the search for the foundation of morality. Aristotle maintained that we start with intuition of the principles and combine them with knowledge by induction from interpreted sense-perception. Cybernetic approach calls for a review of morality within the complexity of moral and non-moral components, stressing personal responsibility.

"Ethics should not aim at the same kind of precision as other sciences. The ethical discourse can only give hints for personal and socially responsible action. Its two basic dangers are to fall into casuistry . . . or to consider itself . . . as a dogmatic guideline for action or as its theoretical substitute." (p.115)

---- 1991:

The author saw information science as a rhetorical discipline, based on formal-methodological and cultural-historical philosophy, derived from Heidegger and Gadamer's hermeneutical, and Wittgenstein's analytical, philosophical insights.

He criticizes the philosophy based on (a) paradigms of representation, codification and rational use of information; (b) the source-channel-receiver focus on the impact of information on its receiver; and (c) Platonistic focus on information itself, which is objectivized in nonhuman carriers of materialistic Platonism, and considered independent of any carrier in the idealistic Platonism. "In the case of constructivist theories the 'outside world' becomes completely determined by the structure of the living. For idealistic Platonism knowledge within the mind becomes objective about the psyche. It is something like a nonmaterial world." (p.85)

The discussions shifted from the cognitive to pragmatic approach early in the 1970s by focusing not merely on knowing the subject but also on 'anomalous state of knowledge', in which the knower is also a non-knower with a Socratic and heremenutical insight. "For the non-knower is a partial-knower, i.e., an inquirer, whose questions are based on a 'conceptual state of knowledge' that is part of the 'user's image of the world.'" (pp.86-7)

Hermeneutics stresses the holistic, social and practical, 'pre-understanding' approach, the 'being-in-the-world-with-others.' "Our being-in-the world is such that we are not first within our subjectivity and look afterwards for ways of getting out of it, but are basically open, i.e., able to be addressed

. . . by the meaningfulness or meaninglessness of things. At the same time we grasp this openness as finite." (p.88)

Information is not a mind-related concept or economic exchange value, but a reflection of our pragmatic existence.

"Information science, conceived as a sub-discipline of rhetorics, implies a double-bind methodology. It must accomplish a self-reflection in a formal-interpretative as well as in a cultural-historical way. It has to resist the temptation to become a purely technical heuristic or meta-discipline embracing ethics and politics." (pp.92-3)

CARLSON, ANN D., 1990:

Basic in John Dewey's general philosophy, called 'instrumental' or 'experimental', is the concept of experience, "an operation that implies the cooperation of the individual and the environment." (p.112) It includes the idea of knowledge, which emerges from the interaction between individual and his environment. Intelligence interpreted experiences in terms of present, formulating hypotheses, tested operationally, about the future. This philosophy provided foundations for educational theory, stressing experience of 'learning by doing' as the basic aspect of education.

Dewey's philosophy is relevant to library education by relating library teachers' personal experiences and philosophy to their methods of teaching.

CARNOVSKY, LEON, 1940:

The dilemma of library policy is based on what the patrons want, what they think they want and what they ought to have. Carnovsky opposes McColvin's dictum that the library should have no opinion, motives, religion, politics or morals. Neutrality is confused with 'do-nothing', or 'refusal to take sides', and authority of autocracy to impose one's own will by force.

"I do not say we should tell people what policy they should advocate; I do say we should see that the undistorted and unsuppressed facts are fairly and unemotionally presented" (p.29), so that the decision can be based on the truth. (p.29)

---- 1944:

Library theory is often formulated in terms of structure rather than function. Library philosophy should address its role as an agency for preservation and maintenance of democratic ideals, its place in democracy, and its relations to the state.

The state is the means for the individual achievement of moral, intellectual and spiritual level; the individual is thus the end of government activities.

In fascism the individual exists solely for the benefit of the state. In democracy 'the greatest good of the individual is achieved through the superior intelligence of the lawmaker'. In the modern definition of democracy 'general will' is denied and the multiplicity of opinions is resolved by majority consensus involving cooperation and compromise. American 'social contract' transfers individuals rights to the elected representatives to act for them.

The library is (a) a sounding board of community interests, it represents the will of the community in selecting books the community wants, and (b) librarian is the intellectual leader of the community by mediating conflicting community wants or needs.

" Every public library . . . represents the state and exemplifies in itself the educational function necessary to bring about enlightenment. By performing this function, the library can make its own basic contribution to the maintenance of the democratic tradition." (p.11)

---- 1950:

There is a confusion between book selection and censorship, both may create identical effects from altogether different causes. Censorship is most often invoked in the areas of politics, religion and morals.

In politics the basic is the notion that freedom is not absolute, and hence courts have to determine when free speech becomes clear and present danger to the society.

In religion free speech is protected by more speech not by its restriction. Religious dialogue contributes to better understanding of different views.

In the area of morals the most sensitive is the issue of obscene literature. The limits of free speech are determined by author's intend, the possible effect of his work on the reader and the community consensus on the definition of obscenity.

---- 1963:

In this article Carnovsky defended the concept of the core course, 'The Library in Society', though by him in the Graduate Library School of University of Chicago. The course deals with theoretical issues of library ends, its social setting and historical evolution. Carnovsky included in this article papers of four of his students reacting to the reading assignment related to the philosophy of librarianship.

Susan Brinkmeyer argued for a meliorist position in the search for constructive approach to the problems of modern democracy, by offering a common ground between the needs of individuals and those of mass society.

Sister Marie Joan Connell maintained that it is not the function of the library to serve the few intellectuals at the expense of the majority of its potential patrons.

John D. Opem called for a redefinition of the concept of equality so as to allow everybody to share in the public domain. The public library is the reflection of its society, before it becomes a tool for its reshaping.

Levi V. Oracion zeroed on the concepts of library philosophy that defines the nature and function of the library within the context of the society. He criticized Plato's philosopher-king approach as a dream, and the compromise of the American public library between the patrons' wants and needs leading to the collection of insignificant material. The notion of a library 'ministering to the generality of men' is a task too difficult for the library to perform.

---- 1964:

Intellectual foundations of librarianship include: (1) Book selection that distinguishes between qualities of books. (2) Arrangement and organization of collections that consists of principles in the organization of knowledge and the logic of cataloging codes. (3) Guidance given to patrons in the use of a library. (4) Acquaintance and the principles of management. (5) Understanding of library history in terms of the social forces creating them. (6) System planning in terms of library functions, and (7) the philosophical and legal background of the freedom to read.

---- 1967:

The author identified major changes in library school curricula, which reflected the changing role of a librarian, the library and the impact of information technology on the basic philosophy of librarianship.

Nineteenth century colleges were textbook-centered with a small library, peripheral to educational programs. In sixties the library school curricula reflected two trends: specialization by library types and functions and introduction of nonprint media and computers, with a shift from the concept of self-contained library to library systems.

Carnovsky noted that there is a tendency to overlook "the distinction between the world of information and of things, and the world of values - between the things that contribute to our ease and comfort and well-being, and the values we possess as human personalities." (p.490) Technology cannot fill the gap between quantity and quality of library services.

CARNOVSKY, LEON and E.W. McDIARMID, 1934:

This is a call for a philosophy of librarianship. The public library formulates its own aims and is exclusively responsible for its actions, reflecting desires of its community. The standards are developed according to a philosophical viewpoint of what library ought to do; the logical consequences of these views should be examined. There is a need for objectivity by avoiding the definition of goals in terms of familiar library practice.

CARR, DAVID, 1981:

Information inquiry is serendipitous, and may lead to unexpected directions. The library search is based on the assumptions, that: (a) only one document can be evaluated at a time, (b) inquiry can change with every new document consulted, (c) every step in the search determines the next step, (d) each inquiry follows its own path, and (e) bibliographic inquiry evolves over time. New electronic technology may or may not assist in the above steps.

CARTER, DANIEL, 1981:

Changing conditions require constant review of library philosophy. If the wants/needs of library patrons are served better by other agencies, they will leave the library.

'Wants' are desires, often emotional, for the information. 'Needs' describe conditions rather than emotions, expressing an interest in a specific reading material.

Carter suggests that the review of library philosophy should start with the reexamination of library functions. Librarianship is defined as the community information service utility. The 'community' describes the territory served; 'information service' implies services that satisfy patrons wants; and 'utility' stands for a useful, wanted, and valuable library services.

Librarianship must redirect its objectives in response to "the way the data/information/entertainment/communication /advertisement reaches the user." (p.1386)

CARTER, G.A., 1948:

The author suggests that if there was a complete philosophy of librarianship, it would solve all library problems. However, as Broadfield points out, the philosophy does not contain the solution, but provides a knowledge used by people to solve the problems. Broadfield notes that the choice of philosophy determined by inclinations makes it an ideology, but the inclinations motivated by a choice of philosophy formulate library philosophy on reason.

CARTIER, CÉLINE R., 1982:_

The author makes a distinction between human and technical aspects of networks, concentrating on the relationships between the two. Computer, although completely depending on human, helps to multiple the capacity of human brain for storing and fast processing information, by expanding the capacity of human brain for maximizing its creative potential. Human formulates hypotheses, the computer conducts experiments, analysis the results, draws conclusions and suggest further research. The networks formed by society further accelerate the evolution of mankind from initial isolation to sharing of information.

Information becomes available rapidly but for limited segments of society and new economy emerges with most activities and jobs based on the availability of information. The collection, processing and dissemination of information require little energy but a large number of information specialists. Network application will reduce the value of libraries but it will increase significantly the value of the librarians.

Networks will link people to information everywhere, but will also isolate the individuals physically. The impact will challenge creative imagination to adjust the moral, scientific and technological attitudes to the changing environment by developing worldwide network of information free of racial, political, religious, national and economic restrictions.

CARTWRIGHT, MORSE ADAMS, 1935:

In discussing the role of the American public library in adult education, the author points out that the library has succeeded in keeping itself free from propaganda by being non-political, non-sectarian and non-propagandistic.

In its development, the public library has changed from the role of custodian to an educator, stressing services to all, not in terms of 'what public wants' but according to the librarians professional responsibilities as a teacher.

The main objective of a public library is the reader advisory service to the individual, the provision of information to the inquirer and the supply of educational material.

CASEY, GENEVIEVE M., 1974:

Public library functions vary. (1) As a non-traditional agency for education it stresses individual approach offering the choice outside of school curricula. (2) As an information center, a public library provides material on all levels of interest to individuals as well as groups. (3) As a rehabilitation center it offers bibliotherapy to the handicapped and institutionalized public. (4) As the cultural center in a multicultural society the library provides a sense of people's cultural identity and appreciation of cultural heritage of others.

Cawkell, A.E., 1986:

Information and its facilities will increase where there are occupational needs and the necessary knowledge to use and pay for it. The cost of obtaining information will expand the gap between the informed and not informed people in England, giving power to the privileged minority of the society.

CHAKRAVARTY, N.C., 1959:

Because of an all-embracing scope of librarianship its philosophy is so vast that it cannot be compressed to a meaningful statement of the profession.

As a social institution, librarianship is based on social science, integrating its services with other social agencies and the social philosophy of the community it serves.

"The theoretical content of librarianship . . . embraces philosophy and science, as a concept, but it can hardly be interpreted or analyzed in philosophical terms or scientific methods of experiments." (p.12) Library success is determined by the advancement of knowledge itself.

CHANDLER, H.J., 1934:

The library is a part of a social organism; its philosophy reflects trends in current general philosophy. Three views of library role conflict with each other: one maintains that library should follow public demands for service, the other wants a library to lead as a cultural institution, stressing post-school education, while the third view sees a library as a business operation stressing quantity of recreative activities.

Chandler maintains that the first principle of librarianship is efficiency of service in response to legitimate demands and within existing resources; the educational role is considered as secondary.

CHATTERJEE, AMITABHA, 1964:

"The philosophy of any field of knowledge or profession can be formulated by: (1) identifying, analyzing and appraising the basic assumptions or foundations upon which practice within that field proceeds, and (2) orienting and relating these assumptions and the practices to all other aspects of life or to a larger whole." (p.133)

Kolitsch defined the nature of philosophy as consistent with social philosophy of the community, coexisting with other philosophies, promoting development of individual, society and library potentials, dynamic in response to changing environment and subject to self-criticism.

Broadfield maintains that only librarians can formulate their own philosophy. Rao Ramakrishna offers four approaches to such philosophy: (1) actional, focusing on functional, practical operations, (2) organismic, stressing the comprehensiveness of librarianship as a whole, (3) naturalistic, considering evolutionary development of principles and theoretical concepts, and (4) reflexive approach based on library functions reflecting social changes.

ALA's 'Library Bill of Rights' expresses the philosophy of library service as objective and relevant selection, resisting censorship, and cooperating with other social agencies. Ranganathan summarized philosophy of librarianship in his Five Laws of Library Science.

CHATTERJEE, MRIDULA, 1974:

Librarianship is directly concerned with communication of knowledge from source to destination, and is affiliated with information science by utilizing its retrieval technology.

Information retrieval system informs the user about the existence and location, but not the subject, of the records.

CHERRY, COLIN E., 1952:

Communications links organisms together. The commodities communicated are defined quantitatively in mathematical theories of communication. They are communicated through abstract language, expressing not a semantical but symbolic meaning (e.g., symbols for sounds in phonetic writing), using two-symbol codes (e.g., long and short smoke signals, Morse or binary codes).

Messages of high probability of occurrence contain little new information; this lead to a mathematical principle that information expressed by symbols decreases with the increased frequency of its occurrence. Based on statistical analysis of the language frequency of use, information is compressed into mathematical symbols. The disturbances in the communication of signals in a form of a random appearance are called noise.

Electronic communication consists of an input, transmission and output of information. Computers are 'noiseless' allowing no mistakes, many-channeled and programmed; they break complex mathematical operations into elementary steps of data subject to logical calculation.

Symbolic logic allows for a mechanization of thought processes (e.g., in the game theory); it is not the computer, its operations that are analogous to brain operations. The computer cannot create information, it merely manipulates it.

The automatic self-control device, stabilizes the dynamic systems by a corrective feedback of information (e.g., homeostasis).

The recognition of received signals relates to the concept of learning, since the speed and ease of recognition depend on the availability of relevant information already possessed (e.g., learnt). The Gestalt focuses on perception of forms relate to the recognition of signals' problems.

Philosophical contribution to communication of information included the following writers: (a) Ampère, André M., who in 'Essai sur la Philosophie des Sciences' coined the word 'cybernétique'' as a 'science of government', (b) Roger Bacon who suggested lodestone as a possible long distance communication device and introduced a bilateral code for assigning two different codes for each letter of an alphabet,

(c) Descartes who contributed to the compression of mathematical information by his application of formula to geometry. He considered the possibility of creating an artificial universal language and envisioned a computing machine, (d) David Hartley defined information as the successive selection of symbols, rejecting 'meaning' as a subjective factor; (e) Leibnitz emphasis of symbolism lead to the compression of mathematical information and use of mathematical symbolism as a universal language of logic. He anticipated the 'reasoning machine', and (f) John Locke maintained that ideas in the mind are stored not statistically like books on shelf, but dynamically according to 'similarity', 'contiguity', or 'cause and effect.'

CHISHOLM, MARGARET, 1975:

"Philosophies are accepted or rejected not according to 'objective truth' but rather according to man's needs and temperament. Each individual must determine what the practice of this philosophy will mean in his or her professional life and personal interest." (p.59)

The author defines philosophy of library education as "a systematic intellectual endeavor to see library education as a whole and as integral part of culture and society." (pp.47). It provides determination, interpretation, and evaluation of library education problems related to the objectives, practices, and outcomes of the field.

---- 1985:

The statement that "every librarian is an educator", rests on the premise that organizing, retrieving and selecting appropriate information are all aspects of being an educator. (p.117)

Both, the instruction and teaching, are goal directed, instruction provides efficient means for accessing knowledge, teaching aims less on cognitive knowledge and more on the overall goal of creating environment conductive to learning.

CHRIST, JOHN M., 1969:

"Functional analysis is a tool with significant positive implications for library research because of: (1) its facility for investigating the social system of which the library is an integral part; and (2) its directions toward heuristic considerations and metaphysical theory long neglected in library science. The sociological approach rather than the mechanistic or mathematical approach to functionalism should be adopted by library researchers because of its ability to develop functional relationships rather than deterministic, causal relationships. " (p.242)

Functional method is an analytical process interrelating specific phenomena that are essential and interrelated parts of an integral whole. It is based on two metaphysical assumptions: (a) that every action has a function, and (b) that societies are well integrated. Each assumption is qualitative and can be verified in terms of logical consistency but not with mathematical confidence.

The focus of functional theory is on directedness of a total system in the historical context; while that of the mechanistic theory considers parts as independent entities, leading to a cause-effect, deductive-inductive approach.

Disadvantages of functionalism include unsatisfactory (heuristic) explanation, and non-verifiable (metaphysical) theory. "But this is a point. What is needed in library science . . . is metaphysical theory. [from which] will come the functional theories and principles which will constitute the basis for a philosophy of library science." (p. 246)

---- 1972:

"This study has posited a dualistic theory of librarianship delineating two main segments to the discipline - communicational and educational librarianship." (p.146) "The continued development of communicational librarianship and its technical emphasis is essential to the development of educational librarianship. Both aspects of the discipline should function harmoniously, the one being vitally concerned with the efficient transmission of recorded knowledge, the other being vitally concerned with its use and the impact of organization as such." (Ibid.)

Philosophy of librarianship is a statement of library functions, primarily educational, in a form of independent and self-directing learning. Educational librarian focuses on knowledge-center philosophy (learning behavior) and on traditional retrieval.

The focus on communication as handling, transmitting and communicating recorded material illustrates the administrative viewpoint. Information retrieval does not inform by changing user's knowledge on the subject of his inquiry, but inform him of the existence, or nonexistence of documents relating to his inquiry.

Educational librarians concentrate on research as a learning process about bibliographical material and about the relationship between the organizational format of such material and the types of knowledge contained in them.

Researchers are preoccupied with knowledge itself, their concern with books is only indirect, while librarians focus on a generic book, and only indirectly on knowledge as a subject, topic or an organizational theme.

The literature search is an important aspect in research and education as a basic connecting point between the educational process and librarianship. Since knowledge is not fully indexed, retrieval is not a mechanical process (as e.g., finding telephone number in a phone book): it involves learning about a library organizational scheme, basic bibliographic tools and formats of resources. Both knowledge of library organization and bibliographic tools are basic to an educated person.

CHRISTENSEEN, PAUL MARTIN, 1976:

Jose Vasconcelos (1882-1959) was a Mexican educator and philosopher, involved in the development of librarianship in Mexico.

In this student's research paper, the author discusses Vasconcelos' philosophy in terms of its possible impact on the philosophy of librarianship.

CHURCHYARD, RUTH, 1978:

In this survey of literature the author identifies two conflicting definitions of bibliotheraphy: as a specialized treatment of emotional or nervous disorder, or as a popular guidance tool, which, through the reading of books, may assist the reader in their emotional problems.

A strong link was demonstrated between the ability level of the readers and the books impact on their intellectual development, but without influencing readers personal behavior, moral or ethical values.

CLAPP, VERNER V., 1960:

Libraries do not produce but merely serve as tools to those who support them. Libraries cannot be citadels of freedom, if they also served in the past as centers of distortion. Everything that can be used, can also be abused. Although libraries become the depositories of human knowledge three thousand years ago, their educational role to provide access to everyone is barely one hundred years old.

"If we say that libraries are the great potential of our society, that is because we have hardly as yet even begun to realize from libraries the services to human welfare and human enjoyment of which they are capable." (p. 307)

CLAYTON, ROBERT L., 1940:

The author opposes the authoritarian view that librarian alone decides 'in vacuo' what should be kept in the library and that his main preoccupation is with technical efficiency of service. Librarians' function is to connect a right person with a right book, which is more than mere dissemination of facts. Library collection objectively reflects man's thoughts. Personal involvement in serving the patron is more important than library gadgets or technical expertness.

CLIFT, VIRGIL A., 1970:

The approach based on providing services for patrons without their participation is limited. The sense of a community can only be developed if the community itself is "able to define the kinds of institutional services it needs and will be able to organize itself to work toward achieving these goals." (p.610)

COHEN AARON, 1981:

Libraries are major beneficiaries of new technology. The role of libraries is expanded by providing efficient access to information, and information is now perceived as a manageable commodity.

The library educational system is criticized by business corporations for its failure to train graduating students in the use of common tools relating to information, by teaching "students archaic procedures with little relevance to the real world." (p.56)

COLLISON, ROBERT L., 1958:

It is important to retain the belief in the value of library services to the community, especially during the time of financial crises.

The future of public library rest in people's desire for its services to improve community's intellectual environment. Part of the librarian's problems is his isolation in the community; the other is the self-searching questioning of the function of the library in a society. Librarianship is a social work requiring the service and devotion of librarians.

COLSON, JOHN CALVIN, 1980:

The social realities of librarianship relevant to library education are grouped in five categories: (1) social position of libraries reflected by a variety of libraries in multi-varied society; (2) Librarians' work determined by social environment rather than the work itself; (3) nature of library education is perceived as indoctrination of students who have preconceived notions what librarianship is; (4) function of professional association reacting to rather than providing leadership; and (5) technologies of information with a library as the product of that technology. It is important to analyze the foundations of librarianship, study libraries and librarianship, rather than teach library science; "we must seek to know the realities of our field." (p. 107)

---- 1983:

The 'library science' approaches to library education dominates the profession since 1920s with emphasis on social sciences (from Butler to Shera). Since 1972 there is a shift in emphases from 'library' to 'information science', implying however not the scientific method but its characterization.

The debate about the nature of librarianship reflects a confusion about different ways of learning: (a) science is based on observations and measurements in controlled situations, (b) history study records of changes, and (c) craftsmanship stresses performance in a technological context. In the first two approaches one learns about things, in the last approach, about doing. None of these approaches is sufficient for library education, because of lack of scientifically controlled conditions, lack of satisfactory historical records and inappropriateness of teaching specific library techniques in library education curriculum.

However, of the three approaches historical study of library development is preferred since it allows for a review of library development in the context of historical realities, providing at the same time for integration of other learning.

"There is no facet of librarianship which is not a function of development from what has been. In its parts and in its sum it is a social enterprise, blended from present demands on a system realized from past prescriptions. The study of librarianship, then, should be a study of development; the study of the processes of the perception of problems and the organization of responses to them." (p. 86)

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, 1990:

A severe criticism of the Columbia University's library school reflects major problems with library education in this country as evident in the closing of other library schools since mid 1970s. (Library schools closed at the universities of: Minnesota, Mississippi, Oregon, Southern California, Emory, Vanderbilt, Denver, Case Western, Chicago).

The criticism includes; (a) library faculty isolation from the instructional programs, research and intellectual life of the university, (b) weak research of little distinction, limited to traditional library functions, (c) lack of 'hard concepts' courses; (d) poor definition of the discipline's scope, "the management of information draws on many disciplines but is identical with none." (p. 6) (e) Curriculum does not reflect internationalization of the field; (f) the focus on professionalism is overbalanced; (g) the quality of the faculty and programs is low, (h) hermeticism and close association with libraries and professional organizations, and teaching is considered not as an extension of research but a substitute for it; (i) library schools are not essential in the development of information science and information management; and (j) there are sufficient number of public institutions that can prepare students for library work.

CONANT, RALPH W., 1967:

"Libraries of all types, should continue to be what they have traditionally been - facilities for the collection and dissemination of cultural and educational materials within the communities they serve. But the library leaders face the problem of defining what material falls within the cultural and educational categories in terms of the market of individual library institutions", (p.534) by distinguishing between appropriate and inappropriate goals.

CONVERSE, WILLIAM R., 1984:

Library research is broadly defined as a systematic investigation of library issues on theoretical, applied, experimental, quantitative, qualitative or conceptual levels.

Library roles as a teacher (orientation and instruction), and as research (private, non-curricular) concentrate on bibliographical or historical issues. Most librarians are managers of records serving as an interface between unsophisticated user and complex databases.

Information is defined as a resource and commodity, its value is determined by market price. In the future, libraries may become depositories of unwanted information, and the access to information may be determined by the ability to pay for it.

---- 1987:

Information society is a term introduced in the 1960 and 70s to redefine social reality of information transfer. Information becomes an economic good (a commodity), and political freedom is defined in economic terms as freedom of information and as a form of intellectual property in a free marketplace.

Privatization of information assumes that it is better handled by private than government agencies through free market demand and supply. Libraries are information markets, expressing needs of its clients. Their function is to reaffirm the concept of information as a public and economic good, available to all citizens, and by using economic theories and models in analyzing library operations.

COOK, GORDON, 1976:

This is a review of literature on the theory of information science published between 1971 and 1976. Glynn Harmon (1971) anticipated development of information science as metascience, without defining it, in a form of specialized subfields of information, each describing skills rather than a theory of information.

Louis Vagrianos (1972) summarized various views on the theory of information science in four groups: (1) as research based on pure and applied sciences, (2) as a theoretical science explaining basis of librarianship as a profession, (3) as a unifying meta-science, and (4) as an information technology.

Artandi (1973) noted that information science does not defines information but describes its manifestations, concentrating on the problems and answers to them by using methods from other disciplines.

Victor Rosenberg (1974) maintained that information science deals with human communication, not with machine processes, and hence it should concentrate more on social, cultural and spiritual values than on deterministic, reductionist and mechanical scientific values.

Slamecka (1975) argued for information science as a science motivated and supported by the applied objectives to control scientific literature toward a management of knowledge as a social and national resource.

B.C. Brookes (1972) strongly objected to Wellish's call for clear definition of information science based on content analysis, offering instead a circular definition of information science as a study of information.

Among Russian writers, E.P. Semeniuk (1971) noted that Shannon's theory is a theory of measurement, investigating not the information itself but its quantity. Mikailov, Chernyi and Giliarevski (1969) called scientific information processes as 'informatics', aiming at the efficiency of communication by processes, storage, retrieval and dissemination of scientific information. They focused not on the generic information but on its activities. In this sense informatics relates to semiotics, psychology and library science.

COONEY, J.P., 1987:

The professional salaries in the field of information are determined by the economics of the marketplace. Value of information can be considered as (1) an intrinsic, metaphysical quality, (2) the effect of its production cost; (3) the product of supply (based on a biological pattern of replication) and demand (generated by information already acquired), and (4) as a function of utility (derived from the value of something else).

CORRIGAN, P.R.D., 1974:

The development of information science sociology is related to the work of Robert Fairthorne who identified information science as a subsection of sociology and studied the creation, use and retrieval of recorded information. Library semantics is physical, librarians handle recorded 'discourses' but do not 'use' them. The activities of librarians are linguistic, referring to written records and their interpretation by the readers. Knowledge "is a product of a particular combination of people and problems and associated communal practices and conceptual vocabularies." (p.134)

CORRIVEAU, JEAN-PIERRE, 1987:

A model for a 'reader-based understanding' of reading process describes private experiences of the reader. The brain is divided into a foreground area, containing causal links extracted from the text, and background area of knowledge previously acquired. Understanding the text involves linking the two areas as the trail of mental reasoning, called text comprehension.

COUSINS, NORMAN, 1959:

Liberation of atomic energy and the conquest of earth gravitation by man-made satellites resulted in the greatest changes in the history of the world, affecting science, systematic knowledge and philosophy. The library considered symbolically as the universe of knowledge, provided material needed for human adaptation to these changes.

The "urgent and overriding need is to convert facts into logic, free will into purpose, conscience into decision . . . historical experience into a design for a sane world . . . processes of education into those ideas that can make this globe safe . . . individual morality into a group ethics." (p.1959) "The library can be a strong part of the new conversion process. It can furnish the basic materials that must go into the making of the new purposes and designs."

CROGHAN, ANTHONY, 1958:

The librarian is a custodian of books, not an educator. His main obligation is to provide the reader with the book he wants.

Both, the librarian and the book, must relate to the outside world. The liking of books is the most basic criterion of a good librarian.

CROWE, LAWSON and SUSAN H. ANTHES, 1988:

Librarianship is involved in political activities in order to protect freedom of access to information and to resist issues such as privatization of public information and fee for service. The quality and nature of service are as significant as library collection. An academic librarian must be patron - rather than medium - oriented.

"An ethical action must take into account the common moral framework of values . . . based on rational assessment of particular circumstances. Unquestioned conformity to rules and regulations is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition to make an action ethical. We must ask why we accept the rules

. . . what interest they serve, and what values they protect."

(p. 127)

CRUNDEN, FREDERICK MORGAN, 1904:

The library is essential at all levels of education by leading to the betterment of society and its culture. While the school influences the child for a few years only, the library's influence through self-education is for life. It is a repository of records of civilization, a custodian, the preserver and the principal mean of disseminating knowledge.

CRUZAT, GWENDOLYN S., 1980:

The system is defined as a group of interrelated or interdependent units, linked together in an environment, forming a whole. The systems are either open, interrelating influences of different elements within and outside of the system, or closed, focusing on the internal relations only.

Medical librarianship is a system consisting of the professional schools, the profession and the professional association. It is an open system importing energies from these subsystems and transforming them to the professionally recognizable products.

CUBARIAN, O.S., 1971:

Early in the 20th century some writers broadened the subject matter of librarianship by recommending inclusion of research into the history of scientific literature. The reaction was either to expand the scope of librarianship into the economics of books, its history and bibliography, or to deny librarianship its scientific research status. In USA the theory of 'free choice of books for reading' and the 'non-interference of libraries in people's reading' is considered by the author as diverting library theory from its original scientific path, by depriving it "of the right to study the essence and aims of the library processes, the influence of libraries on the formation of the social conscience by guiding the people toward the best books." (pp. 337-8)

The task of the 20th century librarianship is to study relationships between book and society, emphasizing the social character of the discipline. Library theory becomes a social science, using its research method to focus on "the forms of mass communication, as a means of forming social consciousness and of disseminating knowledge." (p. 339)

CUMMINGS, MARTIN M., 1986:

Cummings maintains that: (a) The exponential growth of published materials will strain libraries' acquisition, organization and distribution of knowledge; (b) Computer storage and retrieval systems will increase the capacity at lower cost, but the cost of telecommunication will increase; (c) The change will result in decreased acquisition and increased interlibrary lending; (d) demands for physical space will be smaller; (e) The integration of libraries and information agencies with their parental organizations will increase, allowing libraries to compete with commercial agencies in their services to the patrons.

CURRáS, EMILIA, 1984:

The author discusses moral and social implications of new technologies in Information Science, arguing that paradoxically new technology creating sociological and psychological crises are also a means for resolving these crises by understanding and use of new tools.

'Information' is considered as a phenomenon independent of processes, and as a process converting facts into data. Both are transmitted and perceived by the same technical processes.

---- 1985:

The author maintains that information science emerged from humanistic environment of library science, archeology and documentation. Humanity is a close system, producing information by breaking matter into energy, constantly recycling and assimilating it in order to maintain equilibrium. Human as a body and spirit transforms his external world into internal through a documentary-informative process, aiming at happiness expressed by the equilibrium between his body and spirit.

Various theories describe the components of internal equilibrium, and are illustrated by (a) 'epistemological' theories of Korean, Su Myung Moon principle of unification embracing principles of polarity, interaction and duality; (b) Trismegistus religious, political and magical relation of man with his environment, (c) Pensatics organization of thoughts through reading, memory and practice, and (d) Poppers materialistic and positivistic three worlds (man's external surrounding, man himself and his work).

---- 1987:

The theory of knowledge is based on 'informationism', a concept introduced by the author in 1981. She defines information as "a response caused by an external stimulus that conditions one's form of behavior." (p.150) It can be of two kinds as a phenomenon or a process, both communicated by being transmitted and perceived.

Information is an essential component of human life, carried through genes; it differentiates between individuals, different cultures, and human inequality. The author notes a trend for homogeneity by exchange of information between cultures.

CURTIS, PATRICIA, 1970:

This is a report on the author's interview with sociologist Peter Berger on the growing anti-intellectualism in American universities. The danger is less from the extreme left activism or right attacks on academic freedom, both trying to revolutionize the university, but from the middle representing 'youth culture'. This group calls for (a) majority voice in the university's governance, (b) relevance of school activities to the students needs, and (c) pragmatic career orientation. The impact affects the scholarship since it will reduce academic standards, lessen academic discipline (scholarship does not have instant relevance to anything), forcing introduction of therapeutic sensitivity, encounter courses (all inimical to scholarship), eliminating the study of languages and philosophy as required subjects.

The result may be an emergence of three kinds of universities providing: (1) education in sciences, (2) sensitive egomaniacs education or (3) humanistic education for the privileged few, who do not have or want to, work. Thus the majority of students share with the minority of activists profound anti-intellectualism.

The impact of anti-intellectualism on university libraries, although not referred to in the interview, is directly relevant to the changing environment of academic librarianship.

CUSHMAN, JEROME, 1960:

The public library should pay more attention to the individual patron. John Locke's philosophy that man should be governed by their own consent influenced American library movement to shift from 17th century's focus on religious motivation to social argument for the importance of universal education. The 18th century social library of Benjamin Franklin lead to the establishment of a free public library in the following century. Librarianship, with its egalitarian background was slow to adjust its acquisition policies to that trend by continuing to focus on collections in depth at the expense of light reading, serving the minority of population.

The communication revolution in the 20th century led to the expansion of library services to the untapped community interests, by including non-book material.

To justify its role in the society, the library must be totally committed to cultural needs of its patrons.

---- 1962:

The philosophy of the library adult education is an expression of the democratic idea that man can educate himself. The library is an educational institution, dealing with the 'spirit of man', adjusting to changing times.

Among the obstacles to change is the habits, inertia, self-satisfaction and professionalism, each weakening orderly change. The library ought to provide information that will enable the people to bring about effective, evolutionary change.

---- 1965:

Some librarians are forced to abandon the philosophical position on book selection in face of local opposition, which confuses book selection with censorship.

"A book is a disturber of complacency and status quo. It acerbates uncertainties, causes disagreement, and even rage within a community." (p. 3554) The main pressures on book selection are from the community, the library board and the book selection staff, all sensitive to the nay sayers. The solution in part is in constant communication with those groups, reminding them that "freedom to read has the same acceptance in the mind of the public as good library service." (p.3557)

CZOPEK, PAUL, 1984:

All writings in the philosophy of librarianship search for the statements describing goals and purposes of librarianship, but no such statement is universally acceptable.

Melvil Dewy considered library science not as a preserver or storer of knowledge, but as and educational force in a community. John Cotton Dana viewed the library as a center of learning. In 1930s Lowell Martin discussed library social and

'individualizing function' in socializing an individual. Arthur Bostwick stressed love of books, Ernest Richardson proposed a businesslike approach, with knowledge as library business. Archibald MacLeish provided 'romanticized' view of a library as a means for understanding the meaning of life.

In 1960s Jesse Shera saw a librarian as a mediator between readers, books society and graphic records with automation as a means to better understand the relationship between the mind and printed records. Genevie Casey identified education, community information and cultural center. Betina Wolff argued for equal access to communication channels.

The author maintains that philosophy of librarianship did not made progress in the last hundred years, partly because it overstressed the importance of the library as an institution, rather than to pay more attention to the individual librarians.

Da Costa discusses interrelationships between Information

Science, Librarianship and Documentation, by tracing the origin of Information Science to the emergence of the concept of information as an important factor in social development. The approach is based on the Western interpretation of the discipline from the Brazilian viewpoint.

DAHLBERG, I., 1992:

The author discusses the role of logic, theory of science, epistemology, ontology, phenomenology alethiology and metaphysics in the organization of knowledge

DAIN, PHYLIS, 1975:

This is a response to Michael Harris's (1972) revisionists interpretation of the history of the origin of the American public library movement, claiming that the public library was founded by upper class men as a means for preserving social order.

Dain's theme is that although the public library was started by the elite and has not been and still is not representative of the total community, does not mean that public library was not needed or wanted by the people.

Initial intellectual character of librarianship was created by bookish people, who like most intellectuals, seldom come from poor or uneducated classes. Librarians claim that their knowledge of what is good for their patron is in line with the position taken by other professions. The idea of public, democratic participation in formulation of goals is a current notion.

Harris also criticizes the library of the 1940s for abandoning its neutrality as keepers of intellectual records, and librarians for becoming unthinking technicians and bureaucrats. Such goal displacement, Dain claims, may well be the natural history of large organizations. She sees the period of 1920s through 1940s as a period of self-searching.

---- 1978:

"We can and should borrow intellectual and methodological baggage from historians of other subjects, but we must fill this baggage and give it shape through serious research of our own, and do it with a certain suppleness of mind. Though libraries have had an educational function, they are not schools; they have been conceived as social service agencies, they are not settlement houses. Their insight, therefore, and the theories of historians of education or of social reform movement can only be suggestive for us library historians. We have got to do the groundwork in our own field as they have done in theirs."

(p.47)

DANA, JOHN COTTON, 1896:

The author calls for better public relations effort to increase public appreciation of librarians' work and to recognize the work of fellow librarians who are developing library science.

---- 1906:

The library is a cultural force in a society; it should promote incentives to read, mutual understanding among minorities, social harmony and serve as a reconciler of group conflicts. It provides an index to facts, theories and life, it supplies incentive and stimulus to scholars, serves as a source of delight to a general reader, and promotes sympathy toward common customs, ideals and aims, by stimulating inquiry. Books originally written for elite are now available to everyone.

The library should develop a commercial approach by advertising its holdings and services through newspapers, preparing reading lists and inviting users to the library as a part of public relations.

DANIEL, EVELYN, H., 1982:

A modern scientist is not a scholar but a researcher who requires an access to a vast range of information. Not interested in the full knowledge context of the information, he applies selected information to his own theory. The interest is in fast and efficient access to information. Printed records are used more as historical precedence than as the communicators of new ideas. Hence library collection may be more politically than substantively motivated.

Main interest of scientists is in the findings, results and methodology used. Social scientists are more methodology-focused, while humanist are concentrating on literary criticism; all of them utilize a computer.

There are three information worlds: (1) library and archives focusing on historical time frame and storage of records, summarizing the meaning of the documents, (2) clearinghouses and information centers containing collected and organized but not evaluated information, focusing on current documents, and (3) the world of computer manipulation of numerical, machine-readable data.

---- 1987:

The contemporary library science curriculum shows little macroscopical change. It is still based on the quadrivium of cataloging-selection-reference-administration. It however, changed significantly microscopically by expanding technical subjects, changing its focus from libraries as institutions to information and increased awareness of a need for applied research, emphasizing information management rather than information science.

There is a shift in attitude from 'how' to 'why', from techniques to philosophy, from doing to thinking, from accepting to questioning.

ALA recommends a core that would include principles and fundamental aspects of the basic functions of libraries, organized into 3 areas: (1) knowledge (philosophy, foundations of information in society, environmental, contextual knowledge and its management), (2) tools (quantitative/analytical, such as systems analysis, or bibliographic organizational), and (3) skills (communication, technological and interpersonal relations).

DANTON, J. PERIAN, 1934:

"The purpose of this paper is fourfold: (1) to point out the lack of any adequate existing philosophy of librarianship; (2) to consider briefly the place of the philosophical approach to the study of librarianship; (3) to indicate some of the ways in which . . . the creation of a philosophy would prove advantageous; and (4) to suggest briefly some of the problems and questions which should be considered in the formulation of such a philosophy. (p.527)

"Librarianship or library science is that branch of learning which has to do with the recognition, collection, organization, preservation, and utilization of graphic and printed records." (pp. 528-9)

The author suggested an approach that focuses on library functions defined not in terms of metaphysics or philosophy but as aims and objectives, expressed in a theory, and principles.

Metaphysical or 'geistesgeschichtliche' philosophy will be developed later, by answering the question: "Is the library an institution merely or does it contain within itself the germs of a philosophical relation to epistemological progress? " The question is in part answered by Danton by stating that "the library as a social institution is . . . but one phase of its philosophical implications." (p.550)

The importance of a philosophy is in facilitating a recognition of librarianship as a discipline, providing professional unity, validation and meaning for its technologies and clear knowledge of purpose.

---- 1941:

The function of the philosophy of university librarianship is to bring together, coordinate, and unify the philosophies of all other university libraries, and to reconcile differences between library practices and theory. However, since no two institutions have precisely the same detailed policies and objectives, each library must evolve its own specific philosophy, based on the aims of its institution.

The university library has a twofold obligations: (a) to

scholarship, research and the professional schools, and (b) to undergraduate education. The primary function of libraries must be to secure, make available, and conserve the material of research, to offer aids to class teaching and to develop habits of intelligent reading among students.

The library is only means to the end of making records of human experience available to others. "Hence, even though the university library may have metaphysical implications of its own, the base of library's philosophy must rest upon graphic records and readers considered from the point of view of the function and objectives of the university as a whole." (p.203)

The criteria for this 'philosophy of the philosophy' of university librarianship includes: (1) cognizance of the aims of the university to disseminate and advance knowledge, (2) harmony with the philosophy of the university, (3) systematic foundations, based on the results of scientific investigations in fields such as reading, education, psychology and sociology, (4) empirical in its base, (5) comprehensive in its outlook, (6) consistent in its several parts, (7) in harmony with the conditions of its time, (8) feasible in its provisions, (9) satisfying, at least to the minority of librarians and (10) based on graphic records and student-readers.

---- 1973:

Comparative librarianship is a method and approach. The 'comparative' means placing similarities and differences in direct juxtaposition with one another, explaining the differences in terms of all relevant aspects of the social milieu. The focus is not on information about library phenomena in different societies (international librarianship), but on inquiry into the phenomena, conditions and factors which account for the differences (comparative librarianship).

Basic is the comparison; it implies a membership in a specific class, compared within the same or similar classes and having some shared characteristics. (Malinowski disagreed, he felt that one cannot compare incomparable, since each culture must be considered as a unique product of the cultural whole).

Comparative librarianship is a part of library discipline, a field characterized by its primary method (comparison), its scope (cross-societal, cross-cultural), its interdisciplinary nature, and its aims (the search for and explanation of similarities and differences). It is a horizontal explanation supported by vertical, historical approach. It differs from other library sub-disciplines in that it has no direct relationship to another single discipline.

Basic purposes of comparative studies is the search for explanation, or knowledge of causation and the search for principles about the observed phenomena, not merely to list or describe them. Comparative librarianship is the analysis of libraries and their systems in two or more national, cultural or societal environments, in terms of socio-political, economic, cultural, ideological and historical context. Comparative method is concerned with philosophical questions 'what is' and not 'what ought' to be; it is not a normative method, it does not prescribe but try to understand what and why is being done, considering ideology, socio-economic, national, and religious prejudices.

The philosophical predecessors of comparative studies were, (1) Comte, who argued for scientific principles in the study of society, similar to that in biology by comparing different states of human societies resulting from racial, climatic and political factors. (2) Spencer, who equated changes in society with biological growth, and (3) John Stuart Mill whose System of Logic developed logic for science of society, based on (a) causes that produce the state of society generally, and (b) laws of changes. All three approaches were not the methods of inquiry but preferred solutions to problems.

Chase Dane (1954) defined comparative librarianship as "evaluation of philosophies and policies of librarianship on an international scale to determine long-range trends, to appraise shortcomings, and to uncover contradictions and inconsistencies between practice and theory." (p. 29) This is more a statement of purpose than a definition.

Foskett (1965) stated that comparative librarianship implies cross-national, cross-cultural, or cross-geographical considerations, rooted in the understanding of the social forces which produce the library and the causation for these phenomena.

Most satisfactory definition of comparative librarianship was provided by D.Collings (1971) as "a systematic analysis of library development, practices, or problems" considered under different circumstances and in different context, searching for causes and effects in library development. (p.40)

DAVENPORT, ELISABETH, 1991:

Information science is discussed in terms of Farradane's 'physical representation of knowledge'. "The author proposes that an extended class of objects (loosely described as 'postdocumentation') is a proper focus of attention. These objects have emerged from the quantum environment, or electronic publishing, which offers the possibility of combinatorial text and new exchange relationships, and may require new forms of control. (p.286)

DAVIS, CHARLES, H., 1981:

The extend of the inclusion of information science courses in library schools suggests an interdisciplinary field called 'library and information science'.

Major courses offered should include: (1) The concept: organization of information (indexing, classification, document surrogates), the nature of information (its role in society and the growth of knowledge), education and research in information science. (2) The theory: Boolean logic (set theory, document retrieval), mathematical models (bibliometrics) and evaluation of information systems (recall, relevance). (3) The computer related subjects: introduction to computers (computer programming), information system design (systems analysis, flow charting, operations research) and online information retrieval.

(4) library related subjects: library automation (networking), management (information systems, data base management), economics of information systems and professional organizations (career opportunities).

---- 1986:

Library and Information Science is an interdisciplinary field with roots in the Nineveh Library (669-630 BC). It addresses all phases of the information transfer processes including information theory, technology and service, considering them either as overlapping or logically connected.

Library research contributes to the historical and bibliographic scholarship. It concentrates on the relationships between the user and reference librarian. This approach is difficult because it requires informing the user about the study or observing his behavior secretly, thus either influencing the research outcome or violating user's privacy.

DAVIES, D.W., 1974:

This is a critical review of the motivation in establishing American public libraries in the 19th century. The author describes a paradox between the library function to facilitate reading on any desired subject and its social role imposed on in by the society. Founded by cultural elite to uplift the masses by reading, the libraries were not heavily used. To attract the patrons they shifted their focus to nonbooks, cultural and social activities.

DAVIES, ROY, 1981:

Information retrieval and cataloging are the two fundamental aspects of librarianship, useful to other disciplines. Bradford's law of scattering implies the interdisciplinary nature of knowledge; knowledge is interrelated but information is dispersed, librarians became facilitators in communicating information. Philosophic considerations determine the attitudes toward technology. The special library's philosophy was always shaped by parental organization's attention to efficiency, focusing on information not on the documents.

The author cites two examples of scientific methodology that are based on library concepts: (a) Fritz Zwickey's morphological analysis, in which all information relevant to research is grouped together in facets, and after calculating all possible combinations, the feasible one is selected for further study; (b) Honeywell Corporation relevance tree which is a hierarchical diagram of relative significance of different technical alternatives, from which relevance numbers are calculated and compared with others for the most advantageous alternative. This is an example of a planning tool based on classificatory technique.

DAY, ALAN, 1975:

"Don't let us make the cardinal mistake of going overboard on . . . [outreach] programmes, captivated by the new catchwords, to the detriment of our traditional clientele . . . don't let us fall into the error of deluding ourselves that everyone is fully capable of benefiting from a library service." (p.225) "The sooner we admit this, the better we shall husband our scanty resources." (Ibid.)

DE BEER, C.S., 1992:

Knowledge is the most fundamental need in understanding one's environment. The author focuses on the 'unreduced' knowledge, with emphasis "on knowledge as the point where information, theory, description, perception, methods, etc. converge and thus display their interdependence." (p.195)

The author argues for eliminating disciplinary boundaries, by using interdisciplinary techniques and theories in research, linking skillful performance with imaginative thinking.

---- 1993:

The author discussed Manfred Kochen's idea of a 'World Information Synthesis and Encyclopaedia (WISE)', aimed at stabilization of the growth of knowledge, and its implications for the librarianship and information profession. Kochen foreseen a library as one of the institutions involved in consolidating the fragmented, specialized knowledge. "He distinguished between 'the traditional library' and 'the modern library'. 'The traditional library' he characterized as being 'primarily concerned with the collection, preservation, physical organization and use of books as physical objects.'" The modern library is characterized by Kochen as a new institutional form "which is parallel to the traditional library, but which is primarily concerned with content, abstracted from any physical form'. It is this new institutional form that is of central interest to information science." (pp.101-2)

DEAN, NITA, 1988:

This is a summary of various papers presented at the conference about library future. Two major concerns were expressed: the worst fear that public library will disappear and nothing will take its place, and the greatest hope that public library will remain fundamental to the public.

Possible scenarios for the future were presented: (1) emergence of high-tech information society (electronic information displacing books), (2) nothing decisive happens, (3) increased government involvement (captive society), (4) an increased role of libraries (creative society) and (5) a changing focus from access to selectivity.

Access to information is essential for most people. Marketing will be important to improve the library image and to obtain resources. One of the solutions is less staff-intensive service. Networking provides opportunity to stay small, leaving experimentation to other institutions.

Others argue that librarians should be involved in politics and use their constituencies as power brokers. Libraries will always be in transition, but technology doesn't do anything, people do things. Author calls for need-driven, not vendor-driven, technology.

"Direction of a positive future: moving from a central to a distributive system; from national to global; from technology for staff to technology to empower the end user; from the container to the content; from information to knowledge and wisdom, from access to selectivity . . . offering self-service and convenience." (p.19)

DEARDEN, J., 1987 :

Information technology systems are important strategic tools. The concept of centralized information system (IS) was initially necessitated by economic limitations of the evolving technology, and the use of one computer mainframe by all departments. With the less expensive information technology, IS will either be established as independent profit centers, independent subsidiaries or as an outside agency.

The creation of an automated management information system consists of 3 steps: (1) development of a basic system (information needed and its availability, processes, cost and output), (2) development of procedures and flow charts for processing information and (3) a computer program to automate developed procedures.

Anticipated problems with decentralization are: (a) linkage between different users of a computer: single integrated system is expensive; the networking depends on the size of common data base available for the participants (b) compatibility: it is needed for interfacing, and is being addressed by manufacturers; (c) duplicate program and consistency will be avoided by decentralization.

It is a fallacy to maintain that information systems are homogeneous, or that all information must always be available instantaneously; they vary in purpose, content and required availability; no one is an expert in all systems, hence decentralization of information systems is logical.

DEBONS, ANTHONY, 1974:

Information can be considered as: (1) a process (engineering), (2) a commodity (economic), or as (3) an environment (system). Information science bridges these three dimensions (i.e., it is a metascience).

Information is a coded fact and a process of knowing. It thus consists of two components: "that which is received and changed by the internal system and that which is directly applied in man's interaction with his environment." (p.465)

A distinction is made between generation of information (transferring data to information) and communication (transfer of information from one place to another through the representational process). The two aspects of information are often confused.

The information phenomenon has three components: (1) as an act or a process of inquiry, (2) as the application of the results of inquiry, and (3) as a communication or information transfer.

---- 1985:

Library and information sciences are related: the library is an institution concerned with the efficient and effective access, storage and retrieval of information; information science is a theoretical study of integrating librarianship, computer and communication into a totality of information system.

Information system is a product of increased knowledge, developed to retrieve information needed to solve the problems at hand, by means of data processing technology.

All three are parts of totality of knowledge environment at the meta-level. The knowledge environment refers to the total recorded experiences and to the means of applying them toward human development.

"It is thus not library science, not information science, but knowledge science, incorporating all the sciences that are dedicated to the principles and laws regarding generation, use and dissemination or transfer of knowledge." (p. 67)

---- 1990:

This is a review of a debate between the proponents and critics of the use of standards in information science, as a part of establishing a formal language of the discipline.

---- 1993:

The subject of information science is the understanding of the ways in which human process energy by analyzing and designing systems that enhance human capacity to deal with it. Knowledge is an extension of that awareness, while information systems, developed in different disciplines, augment the human awareness of the potential value of information, as e.g., in business, as decision support systems or expert systems of artificial intelligence.

Three major types of knowledge are interrelated. (1) Logistics of acquisition, storage and distribution of resources by arranging symbols in order as data that can then be manipulated. Automata theory maintains that any experience can be processed by machine if the factors related to the experience can be expressed quantitatively. (2) Cognition related to the thinking, remembering, learning and perceiving. It determines the limits of human response to environmental and stimulation; the psychophysics concentrate on the study of relevant response mechanisms. (3) Communication binds together various parts of a system by facilitating transmission of data (e.g., Shannon theory). Its significance is in providing necessary and sufficient condition for the transmission of data.

De GENNARO, RICHARD, 1982:

Most predictions about the future of libraries are made by theoreticians who are not responsible for implementing their ideas into practice. De Gennaro disagrees with the notion that librarians should become principle managers of information in information society; libraries will continue to contain and provide access to the recorded knowledge, but will not be able to manage all the loosely defined information.

Libraries will not become obsolete, they will continue to serve as a link between the researcher, the indexed and abstracted collections, and they are becoming "more, not less, important in our information society even thought their relative share of the total information market is declining." (p. 1054)

De MEY, M., 1984:

The invasion of printing presses in the 15th century is comparable to the introduction of microprocessors. Both represent a major cognitive revolution democratizing technology by increasing the accessibility to information. The shift from script to print eliminated transcribers' errors, who did not understand the text they copied. Printed books provided a much better representation of the often idiosyncratic features of perceived concepts. They also allowed for easier comparison of different texts. "The new technology serves to fix and preserve what has been achieved, before it can be used to express what is to be newly discovered." (p.100)

The computer technology increases the flow of knowledge, and results in a shift from static to dynamic knowledge, with users of knowledge manipulating its sources. The understanding of interactions between users may clarify scientific processes and the working of an individual mind. "The key seems to lie in our grasping the dynamics of apparently simple conversations: Socratic questioning, Galilean dialogues, Piagetian talks with children, and possibly, conversations between librarians and users." (p.109)

DeHART, FLORENCE E., 1979:

The conceptual framework for behavioral attitudes consists of understanding the attitude and behavioral skills of human communication. Important is the inclusion of common sense in the interpersonal relations. However, because of a very complex nature of behavioral science, "no neat, monolithic approach can provide the whole answer to the librarian's search for guidance in human relations." (p. xiii)

The author presents a descriptive, not prescriptive, framework for interpreting behavioral skills in librarianship, which should be a part of librarians know-how. A conscious adaptation of psychological commitment toward oneself, staff and patrons can improve professional behavior.

DEMBOWSKA, MARIA, 1974:

Informatics and the science of science ('naukoznawstwo') are similar: (1) both are complex domains studying issues related to the theory and practice of various phenomena, (2) both contribute to the efficiency of research in social sciences. The two approaches differ in the kind of information addressed: the science of sciences focuses on primary information, informatics is concerned with information transfer and dissemination of primary and secondary information.

DERR, RICHARD L., 1983:

Theory is defined as "a logically interrelated system of concepts and propositions pertaining to some phenomenon or set of phenomena." (p.195) Its primary function in basic disciplines is to describe and explain the nature of human and physical environments.

In professional disciplines the primary function of theory (called 'applied' or 'practical') is to provide directions to professional practice often borrowed from other disciplines. In librarianship, theory directly relates to information transfer. It bridges the organized knowledge of other disciplines with library practice. Knowledge so borrowed is relevant "if it identifies conditions within practical settings which inhibit or facilitate the efforts of practitioners to achieve professional goals." (p. 203)

The theory can be integrated into practice by (1) teaching applied theory, (2) applying it to specific problems, and (3) by using solutions to problems as a way of developing skills.

DERVIN, BRENDA, 1976:

For many people information needs are not satisfied within the existing information systems. Information itself must be

managed in order to be accessible.

Information systems consist of individual citizen, information needs, sources and solutions to these information needs.

There is a gap between the average citizens and the understanding of their information needs. It is created by misunderstanding of the concept of information, and of the role of information keeper as an advisor and advocate, providing information.

Prior research focused on the user relation to information sources rather than on the relations of sources to a patron's needs. A distinction must be made between problem solutions that are either information or resource based. Lack of information (i.e., a need for it) leads to search of resources for it; but if resource does not exist, information itself becomes irrelevant. Furthermore, if the resources are inequitably distributed, limiting access to them, the issue is more of the power and advocacy than on information itself.

"The electronic media incorporate only 'ends' information (information about goals) without presenting 'means' information (information on how to attain the goals)." (p.34) "At least three different types of 'means' information are needed to satisfy everyday needs for: (1) information about alternative means to achieving an outcome, (2) information about criteria with which to evaluate the means, and (3) data that allow criteria to be applied to means, so that final decision can be made." (Ibid.)

---- 1977:

In the past books were the best technology for transmitting ideas and library buildings were means for protecting them. Library systems were defined in terms of these structures, which are now being replaced by new technologies with new structures.

Information is a tool for reducing uncertainty by describing and predicting reality. The individual user's needs for information are considered by the library as unessential, as a typical or average that ought to be adjusted to the existing library system serving the community.

An alternative view sees people as being involved in an information process. Information itself is seen as (a) data that describes part of external reality only, its structure and pattern, ('information 1') and (b) as an idea, the structure of internal reality ('information 2').

The above distinction shifts the focus from information 1 to information 2, differentiating between their objective realities. Individual users move between the two realities according to their behavior, which becomes 'information 3', evident in decisions or preferences, each influencing creation of different information 2 in the same context of information 1.

Hence in dealing with an individuality of patrons one must consider a particular situation as seen by a given individual. Library research ought to concentrate less on the kind of library patrons and more on the kinds of situations in which patrons use libraries.

"The assessment of library activities within the context of a communication model results in assessment focused on how libraries can help people inform themselves, create their own orders, and establish their own understanding." (p.29). "The research is centered on the entity - the user or potential user, who gives the library its real reason for being." (Ibid.)

---- 1992:

Sense-making is "a set of metatheoretical assumptions and propositions about the nature of information, the nature of human use of information, and the nature of human communication." It "refers to a coherent set of theoretically derived methods for studying human sense-making." (pp. 61-62)

Sense-making is based on the assumption of discontinuity in perceiving reality, focusing on the conceptualization of information as a phenomenon independent of human observation, i.e., stressing the transmission question (i.e., how much information was obtained?), rather than construction question (what strategy was used in retrieving the information?).

Information is studied from the viewpoint of an actor (inquirer) rather than an observer (librarian). It is the user who closes the situational gap between the information known and sought by him, according to his own experiences.

The sense-making approach involves the way questions are formulated and data collected and analyzed. It is both quantitative and qualitative. It "assumes that there is something systematic about individual behavior to be found by pursuing process orientation. In this way, then, sense-making casts itself as a systematic qualitative research, an approach with qualitative sensitivity which is amenable to the systematic power of quantitative analysis." (p. 81) It is based on "the assumption that human use of information and information system is qualitative, not monolithic. This implements the discontinuity assumption. Information is not seen as something that describes a given reality in an absolute and potentially accurate way . . . rather, information is constructed. The act of constructing and the act of using that which is constructed is a qualitative act." (Ibid.)

DERVIN, BRENDA and PATRICIA DEWDNEY, 1986:

The authors discuss new reference interview technique.

"Neutral questioning is a strategy for asking questions during interviews where the professional needs to find out what the user or client really wants. The strategy was developed deductively from the core theoretical premises of sense-making and was tested inductively," (p.508) as a subset of open questioning.

DERVIN, BRENDA and MELVIIN J. VOIGHT, 1984:

Various aspects of communication science discussed in separate chapters include: (a) an emerging pattern of isolation and ethnocentrism is responsible for noncommunication in communication science; (b) paradoxes of self-contradictory conclusions in information inquiry lead to a new information search; (c) communication technology's holistic relationships to cause-effect of social and political influences ought to be studied in a given situational context; (d) retrieval of information is based on inductive prediction of relevance of searched documents; (e) heuristics methods, interpretations, and ethnographic context provide bases for the theory of communication science, which at this point is still in search of a discipline.

Glyn Harmon (1980) in his review of the book elaborates on the above assumptions, concluding that "the communication science has yet to evolve or develop a singular paradigm." (p.100) It is described as a meta-discipline, and "the perceived ferment and chaos of the communication science are earmarks of an evolutionary phase toward disciplinary or metadisciplinary development." (Ibid.)

DESROCHERS EDMOND E., 1961:

Preservation, acquisition, organization and effective use of communication media, promotion of reading and supply of information, are all descriptions of library practice, not its philosophy. Philosophy answers the question 'Why? _in terms of library purposes which are different for different kinds of libraries, and hence formulating different philosophies.

Common to all libraries is a focus on individual (close to philosophy of education) and on society (close to social

philosophy). Unique to librarianship are: (a) art of service, advising and guidance, (b) organization and dissemination of knowledge and its sources, (c) evaluation of knowledge for acquisition and use and (d) scholarship integrating scientific, technological and humanistic (motivation) elements

DeWESSE, LEMUEL CAROLL, 1970:

Librarians handle, create and destroy, select, evaluate and give priority to information. The ALA code of ethics is not related to ethics but to administrative and personnel policies, advocating avoidance of change, although tension in change "indicates values, commitment, and a moral struggle." (p. 548) Moral obligation of a librarian includes education of their client, and making moral decisions about 'the good' reading. Librarians must develop a consciousness of themselves, not as amoral individual making moral decisions, pretending that they do not make them, but as conscious representatives of values that society should have.

DEWEY, MELVIL, 1851-1931

As a strong pragmatist, Dewey promoted uniform library practice. He was considered by Shera not so much a scholar but an educator, his philosophical approach, according to Broadfield, was based on citizen-worship, group-mindedness and pragmatism. Foster pointed to Dewey's contribution to the theory of classification by developing its own classificatory system. In 1887 Dewey introduced the first library school in the world at Columbia University.

---- 1898:

On the assumption that 'knowledge is power, Dewey considered the library not merely a collection of books but also as an active and essential source in the education justifying full state support.

---- 1876:

Librarianship is a profession. The concept changed from that of a librarian as a book keeper to his role in education, selecting the best books for the community and encouraging their reading.

"The time was when a library was very like a museum, and a librarian was a mouser in musty books, and visitors looked with curious eyes at ancient tomes and manuscripts. The time is when a library is a school, and the librarian is in the highest sense a teacher, and the visitor is a reader among the books as a workman among his tools." (Reprinted in Landmarks of Library literature, 1876-1976, 1976, p.23)

---- 1898:

Dewey stressed the importance of good reading and state support of public libraries. The library is considered as a community center for cultural activities and is responsible for selection of quality material and continuing education.

DICK, A.L., 1991:

The author reviews epistemological bases for research in library and information science. Butler called for the application of scientific method combined with the humanistic approach to the philosophy of librarianship. However, he warned about the 'scientific delusion' if librarianship is exclusively scientific, based only on positivistic research methodology.

The exclusively positivistic approach is criticized by writers such as an epistemological dualist Wright, who argued for the precedence of metaphysical, rational over empirical, physical approach in the interpretation of ultimate reality. Positivistic epistemology is also criticized by Harris for its value-neutral, apolitical stand. On the other hand, writers like Bergen and Schrader considers positivistic approach as one of many possible research methodologies, preferring a 'holistic' approach that stresses interrelationships between different views. "Within the unity of its immaterial realities and physical instruments, the fate of positivism as a research approach in library and information science appears to be linked to the perception of the balance that will benefit professional development best." (p. 237)

---- 1993:

The essay analyzes positivist, constructivist and critical approaches to the research in library and information science.

Positivist methodology, the most popular approach in addressing technical issues in library and information science, consists of experimental, ex-post facto and descriptive empirical methods of testing a hypothesis. Its philosophy is discussed in detail in Dick's previous essay (1991).

Constructivism, focusing at the reconstructioning processes of reality in the human mind's was already implied in Butler's interpretation of reality as a subjective reconstruction of an objective unified cosmos. Writers that subscribe primarily to basic constructivist propositions are cognitivists (Belkin, 1990; De Mey, 1980; Ellis, 1992), focusing on phenomenology and hermeneutics (Benediktsson, 1989, Bennett, 1988), symbolic interactionism (Wright, 1986), reader-oriented approach (De Beer, 1991); Neill, 1985; Nitecki, 1986) and dialectical approaches (Bergen, 1985; Nitecki, 1985)." (p.57)

Critical theory stressed the influence of ideology on experience, considered politically. It includes "neo-marxist, materialist, feminist, Freireist, participatory, new paradigm, emancipatory and praxis-oriented methods . . . to 'raise people (the oppressed) to a level of 'true consciousness." (p.58) The assumptions of this approach are based on (a) ontological view of critical realism that reality exists but cannot be fully apprehended, (b) epistemological subjectivism assuming that values mediate inquiry, and (c) belief in changeability of human nature, expressed by the metaphors of transformation and emancipation. (Ibid.)

This approach was discussed in library literature among others by Harris, Baum, Neill, Pircher and Frohmann.

Dick recognizes the validity of each of the above approaches and calls for holistic perspectives "as one eminently suited to the disciplinary character of library and information science." (p. 59) It "suggests an interconnectedness of seemingly divergent methods . . . [which] constitute substantively different approaches to inquiry but conform to well-established criteria for validation from objectively constructed frames of reference." (Ibid.)

DICKINSON, DENNIS. W., 1978:

Participative management popular in US since 1960, followed the emergence of a new library staff who are more politically aware, socially and economically demanding and more difficult to manage by traditional methods. Although the concept was first mentioned by Danton (1934a), it is still an ill defined term, meaning everything from staff input to the management by plebiscite. The issue really is that of power sharing with only partial sharing of responsibilities.

Theory Y proposes a middle course between autocracy and anarchy based on the premise that most staff is motivated and responsible. The decision-making are shared with staff, carefully balancing employee freedom with accountability.

However, use of committees as a group-problem solving approach is costly and it results in mediocre decisions that avoid confrontation and defuse responsibilities by making decisions with impunity. The library as a complex logistic system requires coordination and management of the whole organization through hierarchical authority structure, the very antitheses of collegiality.

There is a need to differentiate what is necessary from what is merely possible, leading to a periodical review and revision of library total structure. However, changes cannot be easily implemented by participative management because of the tendency to protect own autonomy, security and staff ascribed status.

In order not to isolate director from the staff, library bureaucracy and hierarchical structure should be kept to the minimum. But a library cannot be run singlehandedly, no one can know all necessary details of operation, thus there is a need for some consultation and delegation of authority.

Participative management should not mean exclusively either administrative abdication of responsibility or maintenance of a dictatorial, autocratic management style.

DIENER, RICHARD A.V., 1989:

Information science is the science that study information. Information is (a) an entity free of matter or energy, (b) it exists in the human and societal domain of interaction, and (c) it can be reproduced, shared without loss, enhanced through use, has a life cycle, is ephemeral, must be processed to exist either as a subjective mind's image or as an objective language, and it has a relative truth value,

Information science should be based on a theory and methodology of its own rather than on a management theory that is not well understood.

DILL, WILLIAM R., 1962:

Environment is the surrounding of an organization, the climate in which the organization functions; its properties are however very complex, its size, diversity and degree of stability vary.

Environment is studied as information available to the organization. The focus is only on those elements of information that bear directly on goal setting and their attainment.

The information serves: (a) as a trigger of action, (b) as a source of information about the goals, their achievements and constraints, and (c) as a means for evaluations and judgments concerning organizational performance.

Individuals and organizations are conceptualized as information processing systems, and the environment is simulated by computers in order to study its impact on them.

DIMOCK, MARSHALL, E., 1938:

"The library should accommodate those who know what they want, and . . . render service, plus guidance and encouragement, to those who need encouragement. In its collaborative work with educational institutions and adult educational movements the library role deserves to be called nothing short of promotional . . . an aggressive educational philosophy is the best. If the objectives can be obtained by the institution's serving in an ancillary position, well and good; if not, then librarians should build their organizations for aggressive action." (pp. 72-73)

"Two principal theories of organization are struggling for mastery in the library field . . . the subject-matter theory of basic organization [for the subject-matter departments] . . . and the functional theory . . . for the circulation and reference departments." (p. 82)

"The best general theory of organization may be called 'functional integration' [in which] functional specialization is combined with the direct authority relationships." (p. 88)

DITZION, SIDNEY, 1939:

"When we examine the whole body of evidence relating to the social nexus between the working class and the public library, we see that humanitarian efforts constitute but a particularized form of pleading for reading matter for the masses. If we remove the emotional content from this method of justifying the existence and extension of a public library, we have left a movement for the education of that part of the extra-school population that could not afford to buy its own books; we have a desire on the part of people in all walks of life to provide for the cultural advancement and vocational improvement." (pp. 170-171).

The social background in the development of a public library includes: "(1) education for intelligent participation in the mechanics of our political democracy, (2) the perfectibility of man and his social relationships by means of the broadest possible diffusion of knowledge, (3) the undercurrent of fear in some quarters of possible violence and disorder that might result from discontent plus ignorance, (4) the attitudes of organized labor toward mass education through the medium of books and reading." (p.184)

---- 1943:

J. N. Larned was a librarian (1877-97), who he expressed a progressive philosophy of librarianship, based on a tridimensional view of cultural development: material advancement, practical acquisition of knowledge and spiritual advocacy of 'good' literature.

The public library responsibility was "to counteract the factionalism of public life and the flippancy of the press with the eclecticism and seriousness of its book collections." (p.118)

Education was not considered merely as a utilitarian means for political, vocational or professional objectives, but as an absolute good, explaining librarians new missionary zeal in the diffusion of knowledge. "The position of the library is that of a ubiquitous auxiliary agency which enriches the effectiveness of all contributions to community life." (p. 119)

Librarians were expected to advance the principle of political economy, based not on equality but equity gained by a superior intellect without disadvantaging others.

Larned distinguished between 'good' and 'bad' novels, suggesting that librarians (to avoid censorship) ought to follow the consensus of literary judgment based on the 'art as a moral conception', objecting to the notion of 'art for art's sake' as an excuse for artistic vulgarity. He also disagreed with the notion that any reading is better than none, since cheap novels lead to an addiction and mental debility. "Questionable books should be purchased only after insistent public pressure . . . with a warning statement as to their general character." (p.121)

Larned reflected a consistent pattern in American life of "a liberal democrats whose eyes are wide open to the underlying weakness of his generation but who is prevented by ethical and moral optimism from acting on the complete logic of his thinking." (p. 131)

---- 1947:

In the past library historians were either fact-gatherers, chroniclers or propagandizers of the profession. The new library history began in the New Deal period sharpening the social consciousness, adding to the study of individual libraries and librarians the studies of economic, political and social factors. The dynamics of group participation was the context of historical thinking at Graduate Library School at Chicago, and in the Library Quarterly. The public library was considered not as an insulated institution, but as an integrated part of American life. Some were trying to apply library history to the sociological models without good understanding of history.

From the beginning American focus was on socialization of books and reading through private, semi-private and public institutions, with leading local people as movers and 'causers' of library development, responding to social-cultural pressures, and as catalysts and accelerators of library development. In general librarians shared with sociologists the preference for studying aggregates of people rather than individual.

One of the 1930s hypotheses maintained that the impetus for public library movement comes from working class needs; this was a motivation of library founders to avoid social disharmony; although the working class itself showed little interest in libraries.

The library profession adhered to the abstract principles of democracy and support of status quo (library was placed alongside professions such as sanitation or hospitals), satisfying a minimum social service demanded by democracy. The conflict between the support of wealthy classes and the voting power of the population resulted in libraries' neutral political position.

The library role in democracy is seen as a meeting ground for poor and rich voting participation; an ignorant voter is considered a treat to democracy, hence the public library is perceived as a substitute for the townhall in political education.

DOLLEN, CHARLES, 1959:

The library is defined by a catholic priest as an orderly collection of books available for use. Nonbook material is justified in special libraries only. Librarianship as a profession ought to be dedicated to truth, by servicing man through books.

The subject-matter of librarianship are books that preserve ideas; its form is an orderly, logically organized activities, its purpose (i.e., a final cause an autonomous entity, a moral unit) is to make books available to its patrons.

"A philosophy of librarianship is needed. It must be founded upon reason, with a view to purpose and method, without an appeal to jargon. Stated simply, it will first of all teach the librarian the greatness of his life of service. Definitely it must contain conclusions about the book, the library, and non-book materials, plus the note of profession, and the position of that profession." (p. 465)

DONOHEW, LEWIS and TIPTON LEONARD, 1973:

Positive, negative and unrewarded lifelong experiences are stored in an individual's memory and influence formulation of three aspects in the individual's image of reality: (1) goals, beliefs, knowledge, (2) self-images and (3) plans for copying with environment, the information seeking process. This cluster of cognitive elements comprises Boulding's concept of an individual's image of reality, his 'frame of references'.

Goals, beliefs and knowledge include concepts, ideas, objects, each further subdivided into 'attributes', i.e., characteristics or qualities of these objects. In storing information one arranges it into hierarchical order of attributes (prominence, the rank on the continuum, valence and degree of preference).

The concept of self includes ability to cope with environment, while information-handling sets, the process of selecting and processing information that depends on people's styles of open or close mind attitude.

Two strategies are followed in acquiring information: (1) narrow focused approach in which individual focuses first on one source of information and adds others as he comes across them. (e.g., by starting with one key article, and building the sources from footnotes and bibliography), and (2) broad-focused strategy in which one first identifies potential sources of information, and then selects the best source, organizing other information around it (e.g., first compiling records in a given subject, selecting specific titles later).

The author's model consists of a flow chart describing options individual has in developing his tripartite image of reality. The steps involve attention to stimuli (color, shape etc.), their cognitive content (as it relates to one's image of reality), assessment of a particular situation, prior experiences, information style in approach to information gathering, priority, risk involved, information needs, preferences, potential sources and feedback. The result of such a strategy may lead to a revision of an individual searcher's reality image.

DONOHUE, JOSEPH C., 1987:

The information profession is discussed in terms of (a) three distinct occupations: librarianship, information systems and information resource management, operating in (b) three different contexts: professional, disciplinary and educational, considered from three viewpoints: turf (economic), abstraction (philosophical) and function (operational). Information science addresses the practical issues of applying modern technology to an information explosion.

DOSA, MARTA L., 1974:

As pointed out by D.Kaser (1974) this book is not about the political environment of the libraries, but about professional life and milieu of a prominent German librarian, Georg Leyh.

In essence, his philosophy "was that libraries have a high humanistic and scholarly purpose that can and must be keep aloof of ideological and political issues." (D.Kaser, 1974, p.460)

DOW, JOHN T., 1977:

Metatheory assures that a right solution is developed for a right problem. In information science, which is a multi-disciplinary approach, metatheory provides means for interrelating components of these disciplines. The functions of metatheory considered as a 'practice theory' are: (a) to facilitate a creation of an appropriate specific theory, (b) to assists in delivering expected products of such theories, and (c) to address idiosyncrasies of each component discipline.

"The prescriptive metatheoretical statement is stated as follows: Information scientists should refer all statements about information to one of the three distinct levels: casual, macroscopic, or microscopic. A theory including statements at more than one level must also include rules of transformation from level to level." (p. 324)

Causal level is non-analytical, with little discrimination between concepts; it is a descriptive approach based on naive realism. Macroscopic level is analytical, with optimal discrimination for research; it is a pragmatic approach based on the philosophy of empiricism. Microscopic level is an extremely analytical, overly practical explanation based on philosophical rationalism.

"Define information casually and it will do well as far as it goes. Take a pragmatic, macroscopic approach, define information operationally, and it is useful and manageable. Try to analyze it further and you are faced with microscopic states and processes, but nothing that can be pointed to as information." (p. 330)

Some rules of the metatheory include (a) decision as to which of the above levels best fits a particular theory and (b) development of linking method between the levels. The theory may be satisfactorily formulated at any level, however the relationships between the levels are that of correspondence not of equivalence.

DOWNS, M.W., 1969:

Protestant ethics, emerging from Reformation, encouraged reading as a virtuous act of self-improvement. By 1853 there were over 1075 subscription and other kinds of libraries. The two conferences in 1853 and 1876 started library movement; no philosophical statements were made at either of the conferences, but individual views were expressed, indicating the emergence of principle guidelines for library development.

The library was at first an adjunct to the authoritarian ruler. In Middle Ages wealth was not actively sought, life on earth was considered transitory with monasteries as sanctuaries of books. Gradual emergence of the nationalism in Europe and encouragement of learning by the church created the concept of roving scholars, moving around monastery libraries. In Renaissance, the focus gradually shifted to individuals; Luther's proclamation in 1517 marked the beginning of Reformation encouraging the use of one's own talents, leading to wealth acquisition, self-reliance and reading.

At 1853 library conference a call was made for a diffusion of knowledge through good books and enlarged public access to them; in 1876 Dewey proclaimed the importance of 'the best reading for the greatest number at the least cost'; books were considered valuable sources of information, for recreational reading and adult education. Since 1876 librarians focused directing on a reader and proper sources by acquiring and organizing collections for easy use, by developing interlibrary loans, providing reference and encouraging self-help.

Philosophy is defined as a 'search for the underlying causes and principles of reality' useful when a choice has to be made between alternatives. The concept of library philosophy is recent, based on a correlation between economics, market system, a profit motif and the growth of libraries.

Writings in philosophy of librarianship started with Gabriel Naude, Martin Schrettinger and F.A. Eberts. The American library conference in 1876 called for innovations, service, adult education and entertainment. The concept of 'knowing your community', recognized all segments of the society, and ALA Bill of Rights (1939) and the Freedom to Read statement (1953) becoming official philosophical principles. Jewett (1848) called for financial support of libraries by public taxation. (1851).

DRAKE, M.A., 1977:

The traditional image of a librarian includes: (1) knowledge of a specific field, (2) prescribed a course of training (no apprenticeship), (3) sale of services (not a product), and (4) purchase of information considered by a client not as a necessity but a choice.

Recent shift from book worshiping to information services, and from warehouse maintenance to information provision, creates a conflict between the goals of librarians and of a library as an organization.

DuBOIS, P.Z. 1979:

Humanistic tradition views librarianship not so much as a profession but as a calling, (similar to the calling of medical doctor), by dedication to scholarship, service and passion for books. New technology should free librarians to do things that only human can do, and not to confuse information with knowledge and wisdom. There is a mindless information science that sees goals as processing of data.

DUCKETT, R.J., 1986:

The author distinguishes between popular (inspirational) and academic (analytical) philosophies, with strong preference for the later.

This view is criticized by S. A,. Combe for making an unrealistic distinction between popular and professional philosophies, instead of differentiating between good and bad philosophies. P. Ellway objects to Duckett's preference for academic philosophies, which is contrary to the trend of moving away from linguistic analysis and focusing instead on problems of existence and conduct relevant to everyday experiences. Both critics accuse Duckett for his elitist preferences.

DUDLEY, MIMI, 1983:

Library instruction, bibliographic instruction and user education are all reference services. The concept of reference as an assistance to users of libraries first appeared in Library Journal in 1891. In 1870's personal assistance to the reader was made available, in 1877 the access to the resources themselves was restricted to the research. In 1884 Dewey introduced the first reference department at Columbia University. In the last quarter of the 20th century library instruction was formalized as a separate function. establishing a separate unit within ALA.

The philosophy of bibliographic instruction asks the questions: why, when, where and who of library instructions. The answer: When? Now, Always, Anytime. Where? Anyplace. Every Place. Who? Your users and your colleagues. Why? Because you are a librarian." (p.63)

DU MONT, ROSEMARY RUHIG, 1982:

It is wrong to assume that with a sufficient amount of information any information need can be fulfilled. Information is not just a material resource but reflects level of understanding and constraint of individuals in their random search for information.

DUNBAR, GEOFFREY, 1972:

Quotes William James' distinction between a life and dead hypothesis about beliefs. The life hypotheses appeal to the person they are addressed, the dead do not.

D. Berninghausen's hypotheses makes a distinction between librarians non-involvement on professional issues and their interests as citizens.

Social Responsibilities Round Table members take an opposite view, claiming that this is a too restrictive, dead hypothesis. According to them, the nature of an individual and his relationships and responsibilities to the society require that the librarians are directly involved in fundamental social issues.

The author maintains that the Berninghausen hypothesis reflects the identity-through-vocation syndrome of 1940s to 1960s; while the identity-through social responsibility is an unavoidable next stage in the evolutionary development of librarians social consciousness. However, both approaches can be seen as moving from the view of the world 'as it is' today to the ideal world that 'might be."

DUNCAN, JOSEPH W. 1988:

There is a lack of differentiation between 'information age' and 'information industry'. US economy changed from agricultural through manufacturing to present service domination, but all three areas of service are still important.

Information industry is characterized by maintenance of bibliographic databases, redistribution of information, aggregation of available information, collection, analyzes and distribution of proprietary information, provision of critical support in computer manufacture and development of software and telecommunication.

Functionally, the essence of management of information is difficult to define because value of information is subjective, situation- and time- dependent, with difficulties to measure 'values added' in the decision environment. (Value added includes the contribution of capital equipment required, wages, salaries, profits and other costs.)

Value added measurements in national income accounts do not evaluate the enhanced productivity, evident in an individual situation. It is clear however, that information activities do enhance in general the ability to undertake more tangible economic activities.

DUNKIN, P.S. (1973):

The author describes major 'revolution' in librarianship as it is illustrated by changes in cataloging rules. The legalistic theory of cataloging insists that every aspect of cataloging must have rules, hence attempts to include issues of taste and judgment, obscure the principles of cataloging.

In 1876 Cutter in his search for principles of cataloging, developed rules adjusted to the needs of different kinds of libraries. Jewett in 1852 stated that nothing in cataloging should be left to an individual's judgment. Osborn maintained that cataloging is an art based on principles and simplifications. Lubetzky also objected to detailed cataloging practice; in his review of rules for entry and description, he emphasized cataloging economy, with preference always given to clarity rather than simplicity.

To avoid costs of recataloging, Library of Congress and ARL developed a compromise, bringing together rules of 'ALA Red Book' and LC 'Green Book', by introducing the principle of superimposition (new rules applying to new additions and personal and corporate entries established for the first time.) At the same time LC and ARL pushed for automation.

DUNNETT, WALTER, 1984:

There are two kinds of reading: (1) easy reading, easily comprehended for information, and (2) challenging reading requiring an effort to understand.

M.J. Adler proposed three types of reading: (1) "Learn to read structurally or analytically, moving from the whole to the parts, (2) Learn to read interpretatively or synthetically, moving from the parts to the whole, and (3) Learn to read critically, evaluating what you read, judging what the author is saying." (p. 120)

One should learn how to understand what the author intended. Material read should be enjoyed and used for personal, social, professional or vocational purposes; each reading contributes to the development of a person.

DURELL, THOMAS J., 1938:

Rural schools cannot fulfill their obligations without a county library. The librarian knows better the reading needs of children in her community than the local teacher. The two main functions of a county library are to provide material for information and develop in children a love of books by exposing them to books and by providing reading group experience.

DURR. W.T., 1988:

The current flow of information from sources to users does not obliterate but revolutionize the roles of the librarians, curators, record managers and archivists. It represents communication among the institutions, an explosion in hardware and an implosion in the software, creating chaos in the archival world which requires archivists to pay more attention to the theory and functions of institutions. The information revolution gives abundant information but also creates a hazard in preservation.

Information science is defined as the discipline that observes, experiments with, and defines the construction of automated systems, and that retrieve information generated and organized by bureaucracies for storage and distribution to selected audiences.

It helps answering the questions: What are we doing? How are we doing it? An archival software developer asks: How do we control records in relation to their management and retrieval by subject content? Information is the key intellectual property, the common denominator, used by a three-tier system: the repository management, the software management and user management systems. "Management of information is the key to what professional do - they manage information about records in order to manage records." (p.599)

DUTTON, J., 1988:

Often repeated themes in library literature are: (1) censorship and intellectual freedom with intend to save us from various evils, (2) cult of computers, forecasting demise of traditional librarianship, (3) cult of social activists, demanding library social relevance to be accepted in political order, (4) professional management of libraries by use of scientific management, (5) library place in information society as partners of computers, (6) library education with little if any understanding of the theoretical bases of librarianship and (7) theme of books, bibliotherapy, cultural experience, personal growth, and recreation. Our work should relate to what we do best, provide cultural memory and experience through books.

DYCKMAN, JOHN W., 1964:

Expansion of higher education, competes with research and reading functions of public libraries; technology diminishes the importance of book circulation, television affected reading habits, paperbacks weaken the importance of library collections and the storehouse function is shifting to federal and university archives.

The importance of the public library remains in the informal education, leisure reading and primarily as the centers for basic book resources, reference, reproduction and preservation.

DYER, CHRISTOPHER, 1969:

Philosophy of school librarianship stresses the choice of reading by individual reader. Writing and reading were desirable when no other ways of preserving talk were available. Today these skills may not be as absolute as in the past, and dependence on reading alone in school programs may not be enough.

Needs of individual students consist of: (1) access to facts, each individual determining what kinds of facts he needs; (2) linguistic need to communicate but also to think, requires a variety of language levels, (3) psychological, personal needs for developing imagination through fiction, (4) aesthetic satisfaction, which depends on individual choices; it is also highly personal, and refers to esthetic standards and culture.

Freedom is a philosophical paradox. Primitive man would be free theoretically, but he was actually bound by the theoretical freedom of all other species. 'I am free to be an individual, but my freedom is circumscribed by every other individual's freedom'. Hence the school library must address the individual's need for satisfaction in the context of the larger group.

Similarly the concept of ethical goodness in the library is relevant not only in the ethical or esthetic sense of 'good' books but also in the attitude that justifies a library, in a sense of the student having a freedom to read; it is not an absolute goodness of reading as such.