As a profession based on academic libraries, librarianship is 100 years old; as a 'calling' it goes back to times humanity become conscious of the idea of continuity.

Librarianship has been a stable profession, with a mission, defining operational setting, and agenda of duties based on procedures. Can such a disciplined profession survive in an undisciplined world?

Universities are no longer structured and predictable, but diffused and complex, both intellectually and organizationally. The traditional academic independence is maintained by balancing the demands of many people.

These changes are reflected in the academic libraries mismatch between the substance and perceptions of our profession. Librarianship must be redefined, with the library more visible to scholarship, research and teaching. The idea of a generic librarian may be outmoded, librarianship may have to become an aggregation of discrete specialties, focused on a common cause, both in theory and practice.

Low visibility of librarianship, lack of significant research and ambiguity in definition of 'libraries' and 'librarianship' affects both library operations and education. Renaming of library schools suggests transferring responsibilities for library education to 'information' disciplines, and indicates a failure to address its own substance.

Changing technology affects not only libraries but the whole scholarship. Significance of these changes is illustrated by ineffectiveness in dealing with some library problems such as fragmentation of bibliographic structure and lack of plans for collection and preservation that are realistic and cost-effective.

New base for 'information studies' include: (1) the study of structured, or organized information with equitable access to information as an ultimate goal; (2) information science defined as the processes of generating, organizing, storing, distributing and using information in all its forms; (3) the development and management of organizations charged for provision and service of information resources.

All these issues require understanding "information itself, the policies that affect content and access, the processes involved, and the organization and management of the operating organizations." (p. 4)

The discipline of information science is a consolidation of topics from different disciplines into one cohesive whole. It includes, (a) an intellectual property, copyright, effect of regulations on information flow, proprietary issues in law, (b) methods of assessing values and costs of information links between information and productivity, the economics of information industry, effects of international access to information on scholarship, (c) the influence of information technology on social structures and processes, and the characteristics of needs in 'information societies' (sociology), (d) public information policy, and the effect of national information practices on third-world development (public administration), and (e) relationships between creativity and information availability, organization of knowledge, and ways of learning in other disciplines.

All these issues are considered in terms of putting information to use in a society. "This is the appropriate foundation for our profession. It is the academic base on which our procedures and practices must ultimately rest." (p. 5)

---- 1988

Technologies presently used by libraries include (a) an information storage (reduced-size images on film, magnetic storage of images, encoded information on computer tape, laser-based digital/optical systems, such as CD-ROM), (b) distribution (electronic networks utilizing telephone, leased lines, fiber glass cable and satellites) and (c) processing (from basic processes to sorting, cataloging, interpretation, evaluation, synthesis and integration of information).

It all started with automating cataloging, acquisition, and circulation. Computer and telecommunication have significant impact on libraries by facilitating cooperation and joint ventures between libraries, creating new international information industry.

Most remarkable is the recasting of bibliographic foundations for scholarship and research (from card catalogs to computerized catalogs, standardized formats for different kinds of publications and languages). Conversion of text to electronic or optical/digital formats for distribution is still in its early stages.

As the results of these changes library interdependence is now an irreversible fact of life, although the format of such interdependence is still taking shape. There are many points of view, all important and firmly held and few principles that need consideration, such as equitable access to information, responsible use of financial resources, preservation of past publications, building collections for future use, and exploration of better ways for individual and society to make full use of what is known.

HAINES, HELEN E., 1938:

Library development followed a succession and multiplication of methods and changing emphasis of the nature of librarianship.

The foundations of librarianship were based on books as components of culture and on reading as enlightenment. Initial development was a practical change in mechanical and bibliographic processes resulting from technical inventions and changing environment.

The present trend is toward specialized intellectualism, efficient mechanical operations, statistical research, mechanization of functions, transforming the library cultural backgrounds, and shifting book selection from books themselves to the subject selection based on statistical mass-analysis of readers interest. The community rather than individual become the unit of service, and the types of books rather than the values of an individual book become the criteria of selection.

The new approach suggests two fallacies": first, that individual human beings, each one peculiar to itself, can be transmuted into mathematical figments; second, that book values, potent but imponderable, can be translated into statistical formulas for automatic mass application." (p. 621)

---- 1946:

" Philosophy seems to me an individual and personal distillation from the chemistry of one's own thoughts and experience, rather than a collective, impersonal formulation of beliefs and conclusions set forth for individual acceptance." (p.848) Any profession "must have three distinctive characteristics: it must have a discipline (a system of training), ethics (formulation of rules of conduct and moral obligations), and a vision (the outcome or essence of a philosophy). (Ibid.)

Ethics is moral, personal and individual stressing self-discipline and self-development. Library ethics requires responsive interest in people, personal knowledge of books, confidence and purpose.

American librarianship developed in three stages: formulating professional discipline (education), ethics (a code of practice) and finally philosophy. "From these mingled forces of past, present and future a philosophy of librarianship will take shape. Quoting John Dewey, 'life without it must be a different sort of thing from life with it. And the difference which it makes must be in us.'" (p. 851).

---- 1950:

This is an essay on esthetic approach in librarianship, stressing inspirational value of books. The book assists in formation of character (unconscious self-education), it provides a background for understanding the meaning and interest in living. It increases sensitivity and awareness of cultural changes and its impact on an individual reflects that individual's personality. Librarianship brings books into the common life. Belief in books, receptivity and broad-mindedness, framed by social consciousness, confidence and purpose, are the prerequisite of the library profession as an intellectual leaders.

HALL, MARLENE, 1984:

Introduction of automation does not deprofessionalises librarianship; the changes in knowledge and the structures of subject disciplines produce technocratic professional, concerned with the provision of information services. "Such services define the user in terms of abstract categories rather than attempting to foster the values and culture of particular community." (p. 23)

A profession transforms the traditional intellectual rules into mechanical techniques, defining rational action, identifying means to achieve it and shifting librarians' focus from the knowledge of books to that of media and computer accessed data.

The subject disciplines "integrated in some areas, are being stratified and differentiated. And the non-professional gradually is being denied control over his or her work by the increasing dominance of theory over practice." (p.27)

HAMBURG, MORRIS and others, 1976:

The evaluation of library goals is difficult because of the interrelatedness among the library objectives that reflect variety of library resources and their use.

"The essential ingredient missing in previous studies was a lack of clarity concerning what the library was attempting to achieve as well as a failure to specify the link between the data and use made of the data." (p.129) "The systems approach is an extremely useful methodology for linking the library's information system with its objectives and its decision-making and planning process." (Ibid.)

HAMMARBERG, ROBERT, 1981:

The author opposes the theory that data are raw, brute facts, from which information and knowledge are derived ('cooked'). If this approach is accepted, then (a) the subject matter of information science overlaps with cognitive psychology and epistemology; sharing their interest in the way knowledge is attained; or (b) data are intrinsically defined in terms of Empiricist Foundationalism.

The Foundationalist assumes existence of the basic foundation for knowledge. The Empirical Foundationalist maintains that raw data are unprocessed givens, different in kind from information and knowledge. Hence knowledge can be attained from data by means of an algorithm, automatically and independently of imperfect human processing (a view held by business and government interpreting knowledge in terms of power).

Since nothing is known about intrinsic properties of data, information processing system (IPS) becomes an interface with reality, reality being an aggregate of data.

This view is supported either by (a) Naive Realism (data enter IPS directly in their intrinsic form), or (b) by Indirect Realism (assuming a categorical distinction between data and their derivatives).

Hammarberg objects: "Matters not representable are not accessible, and matters accessible are so only in virtue of being presented in the language of the IPS." (p. 263.) Data and information to be compatible must also be of the same kind. If the raw data are foundational then they can be apprehended by IPS in some representational language, hence they became processed, losing their essential property of rawness.

Farradane proposes that information is "a physical surrogate of knowledge (e.g. language) used for communication" as an 'invariant starting point." (p. 264) This calls for a distinction between physical (e.g., sound as an acoustic wave form) and cognitive (e.g., something heard) phenomena. The relationship between the two concept must be unique (i.e., 'if and only if'), this is a position of Physicalistic Reductionism which maintains that all psychological events and categories are coexistent with physical entities. Hammarberg asks, what is a physical surrogate of the necessary ingredient of information meaning? Language is not a surrogate of anything, and not all information is knowledge.

"We may have false information, but to speak of false knowledge is like speaking of false truths - it is a contradiction in adjecto." (p. 266)

In his answer to Farradane's comment based on the notion that information is defined in terms of language theory (J.Farradane, 1981), Hammarberg states that "to say that writing is language is like saying that a picture of a cow is a cow" (p. 225) and hence "one cannot recognize something as 'something', except in terms of a concept of that 'something'." (p.226)

HANDLIN, OSCAR, 1987:

Library function is to help scholars to expand the store of knowledge by reorganizing the information assembled in library collections. Librarians must follow specialized informed opinion in building their collections.

Enemies of the library are: (a) externally, cultural apathy toward reading, and preference for immediate gratification over long term satisfaction. (b) Internally, library preoccupation with technical retrieval of bits of information rather than concentration on information's meaning; this is a museal approach to library collection, protecting it from abusing users and hyperspecialists by focusing only on their own subject area.

Libraries can do more than just provide machine produced answers, based on how they were programmed: "In the library, no one tells students what to read; they roam where their interests lead. No one doles out information; they seek knowledge where they wish. The library is a place of learning as the school is not, a place where questions are not stiffed in ready answers but provoke thought, and where one thought leads to another. The warfare between the established learning ensconced in the schoolroom and lecture hall and the subversive learning hidden in the library is more acute and more vital as ever. The outcome will decisively influence our culture." (p. 217).

HANKS, GARDNER and C.JAMES SCHMIDT, 1975:

The traditional sociological model for a library profession is rejected. It contains elements that resist change. The authors propose an alternative model based on the General Systems Theory, which is open and more hospitable to change.

HANNABUSS, STUART, 1988:

This is an epistemological definition of knowledge: "We think, therefore we know. Since we know, and know we know, we know we think. Thinking is used for extended knowing. Such knowledge may be structured in many ways. Professional groups invent, order and normalize their consensual knowledge. Educationalists develop ordered structures of knowledge and think of them as subject domains and disciplines.

Such systems of knowledge are substantive, in the sense that they concern themselves with content, significant factuality, values and beliefs. They are also procedural, because they deal with and imply methodologies and preferred ways of investigations." (p. 7)

The explanation can be either nomothetic (illustrating a general statement) or ideographic (implying subjective reality interpreted intuitively). We accept or reject the explanation and then build into it causation, explaining the relationship between past explanation and future anticipation. Knowledge is aetiological.

Paradigms describe the world views based on factual and intellectual knowledge and the methods of investigating and explaining it. They embody different approaches (e.g., political), changing with reformulation of knowledge (e.g., from pre-Mendelian to current genetics) and are formulated in different cognitive and linguistic frameworks of knowledge. In searching for information we reformulate, redesign and redefine our concepts, alter causal relationships, and ask new questions.

We convert information into knowledge by categorizing (differentiating) and interrelating concepts into ordered knowledge on two levels: (a) horizontal, in which synonyms are turned into metaphors, and (b) vertical, of subordinate and superordinate concepts and their relations (e.g., genus-species relations).

Knowledge can also be ordered by frames (settings for contextualizing and giving meaning to phenomena) and scripts (meaning based on experience). In information inquiry, frames clarify the explicit or implicit needs of the inquirer, and scripts allow us to anticipate patrons' behavior that reflects a wide range of interpersonal relations.

This meta-cognitive mediation on knowledge and information "entails knowing how people come to know, and how they use knowledge, and that knowledge of the knowledge. Paradigms and frames are important for understanding how people hold and use their knowledge, and where the facts and feelings are strong and weak. The complex diversity of the information enquiry, and the learning styles of people involved in such enquiry, is worth careful investigation because of the light it sheds on knowledge representation." (p.14)

---- 1988a:

Knowing implies a faculty of organization or order. Ordering can be objective or subjective, empirical or intuitive. Structure suggests a pattern within the discipline; patterns emerge through processes and causations. The conceptual structure of a discipline determines what is searched and how the results of the search will be formulated.

Pedagogical structure is the system of learning devised by a teacher and interacted with students. An individual's encounter with subject matter involves integrating new knowledge into one's personal knowledge. Most subjects have more than one structure.

Information science is concerned about process of knowledge formulation, organization and retrieval and is interconnected with computer science, psychology, librarianship, linguistics, mathematics and engineering.

Management is an amalgam of economics, politics, psychology, design, cost accounting, commerce, engineering and office technology. The procedural part in structuring the knowledge includes the ways experts in that field use the criteria, such as references.

The aspects of library management include the following factors: (1) formistic: form and function; (2) contextual: emphasis on community served as a context; (3) normative: expectation of what librarians should do; (4) contingent: open ended and individualistic management style; (5) positivistic: based on scientific and observable knowledge; (6) humanistic: human values of major importance; (7) predetermined: an autocratic operational model (hierarchical); (8) negotiated: participative model; (9) technical: quantitative skills; and (10) interpersonal: emphasis on people skills.

HARDEN, RICHARD, 1978:

"We are trying to develop a system to fit the needs of individuals as opposed to try to force individuals to adapt their style to a particular system." (p.13) Librarians collect information in the sense of identifying sources of data and the timely transmission of these data, focusing on storing and effective retrieval, analysis and electronic communication of information to general public.

HARLEY, J., 1953:

"We have no sense of value or proportion, no philosophy of history, art or anything else; we attempt to preserve everything." (p.3) "The first principle of art is that it consists in selection and compression . . . The ability to decide what is to be kept postulates a philosophy defining some absolute values." (Ibid.) "A paradox [is] in that it is from the things which we are preserving that men will gain the experience necessary for them to decide what to preserve." (Ibid.)

The further a man advances along the path of 'philosophy', the less he needs - certainly the fewer books he needs. If we were really progressing we should be gradually ridding ourselves of our books, rather than feverishly collecting every new one that appears" (P.4)

---- 1954:

The expressions such as 'philosophy of librarianship' or 'the ethics of librarianship' do not mean much. The public library may have some general philosophy or ethics, but a special library can only follow the philosophy of its institution.

"My philosophy is a philosophy of the elite . . . [but] I should be ashamed if I did not want to include everybody in that elite." (p. 420)

Most of the things in our life have no value, the books like ideas become obsolete. Librarians love books but they must also love what is written in them. Having no tradition of his own librarian must relate to other disciplines. The author suggests education as the discipline aiming at the whole person.

HARLOW, NEAL, 1963:

There are three distinctive levels of academic library services: (1) college level focusing on instruction in general and self education; (2) university level general in scope and specialized in the content of its holding, focusing on needed information in subject fields and synthesis for research, and (3) research level that provides intellectual support for research activities, mainly by offering information rather than material for a particular clientele in special libraries.

"Library resources are vital to the academic man, but a library system to satisfy his intellectual requirements has seldom justified its existence to him." (pp. 363-4)

---- 1969a:

Librarianship has no uniform philosophy. In 19th century the focus was on technology (Dewey), in 1900 on reference, bibliography and book selection, in 1920 on cataloging, classification, subject heading and administration; later expanded by additional courses in special librarianship, information science, system analysis and computer programming.

Harlow suggests the application of the field theory that was developed in physics for library philosophy, not as a theory but as a unified approach, with a library considered as a process not separated from other disciplines.

The theory "presents a generalized notion of a 'field' within which all occurrences take place - all events in 'nature' occur within some field, large or small - and the properties and structure of the field (rather than any limited or intrinsic forces) explain local phenomena. [It] is opposed to 'atomism'

. . . and is disposed toward larger, more complex, and 'natural' rather than artificial units . . . identifying and arranging its elements into 'interbehaving' systems which interact with each other as 'wholes' rather than 'bit-by-bit'." (p. 79)

The field theory analysis starts with the situation as a whole, stressing organization rather than its parts. It is a dynamic system expressed mathematically that distinguishes between relationships within and in a system.

Applying the theory to librarianship, one starts "with the system or frame of reference within which knowledge and information are created, communicated and utilized . . . constructing sub-systems of interacting influences and activities related to sources of information, processes and people - instead of subdividing functions and operations into distinct types and parts." (p.80)

In this theory the 'field' refers to the existing knowledge and information, as a part of larger field that produces new knowledge. The structure of the field is the process of communication, the 'particles' are indemnified with 'bits', facts or data, and 'weaves' with propagation of 'ideas'. 'concepts' and 'subject-matter'. The concept of 'entropy' relates to the disorganization of information, degradation of meaning in information transfer and the margin of error in the model itself.

The sub-systems of the library field of communication include: "(1) the generation, organization, and storage of the record . . . (2) the interface between the record and user

. . . (3) the retrieval of information . . . and its transmission; and (4) the evaluation of output in terms of satisfying users' needs." (p. 81)

The application of the field theory in librarianship broadens the library curriculum by dealing with macro approach, accenting the interaction of elements in the library as an organic whole and underlining a continuum of the processes, stressing the need to interrelate different intellectual approaches and disciplines in library curricula.

---- 1973:

Distinction is made between 'acquiry' (acquisition of information), as a major function of librarians and 'inquiry' (examination of information), as a major task of a teacher.

However many libraries exist more in a state of being than doing; they are like a misread power of high voltage sources that is used only for a low current, flowing through the system for lighting an individual lamp, which requires little electricity.

In automation age libraries cannot be reduced to push bottom operations; they are not only a source of information but also a tool for learning, with patrons shifting from 'acquiry' to 'inquiry' and back again.

Librarians' responsibility is to manage, acquire and to instruct by accommodating learning process to the individual students needs. Important here is the concept of independent study: library will acquaint the patron with the function of information in inquiry (as evidence, not answers) and familiarize him with information sources, teaching how to recognize and evaluate content, how to understand the organization of the scholarly discipline, the arrangement of material in the library and the pattern and utility of bibliographic structure and method. For more advanced users the library offers information instead of instruction.

The library is not only the collector and transporter of information (delivering it in exact form in which it is received) but also a transformer, processor and analyzer, always providing evidence, not answers.

HARLOW NEAL and others, 1969:

In U.S.A. public administration as a discipline began in the early 20th century. Bureaucracy of the early 19th century was simple with minimal governmental services. In 1820s following Jacksonian reforms, laymen took over decision-making initiative, stressing decentralization and minimal government involvement (Adam Smith).

Professionalism emerged in late 1930s expanding public services and governmental controls. Administration was defined as planning, organization, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting (POSDCORB). The Human relations movement began at the same time stressing importance of personal relations. It influenced development of library management by opposing the notion that the library as an agent of change can best accomplish its goals in a conservative, traditional environment.

In 1950s a number of new theories emerged. Operations Research stressed mechanization, computers and simulation; Systems Analysis focused on the nature of systems; and Organizational theories studied interdisciplinary analysis of organizations.

Administrative views among library theoreticians were revolutionized in 1950s by stressing political, bureaucratic and professional ethical issues; however, majority of librarians were slow to follow the changes.

Bernard Goldstein proposed that sociology is focusing on the structure and dynamics of social interaction, considering change as a constant social reality. "Libraries can be viewed as part of the communication network of the society and community; . . . of the system by which the culture of the society is cultivated and transmitted; . . . of the technology of a social system; and . . . the social system of the community." (p. 43)

David L. Raphael maintained that system is a point of view, a philosophy based on the notions of relations, integrating static concept of 'structure' and dynamic of 'function': it is "an organized or complex whole; an assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole." (p.52) Library system is homeostatic (controlled by feedback), goal oriented and constantly changing in response to socio-economic environment.

HARMON, GLYNN, 1971:

Information science "emerged not only as an expansion and metamorphosis of documentation and information retrieval; it directly or indirectly incorporated or paralleled several prevailing objectives and concepts of the communication and behavioral sciences and other contributing disciplines."

(p. 240)

Documentation as a disciplinary system began with the Vannever Bush article in 1945. It focused on the physical aspects of the documents and their use: the organization, needs, and use of information, creation, copying, storage, retrieval, language analysis, mechanical translation, system design, analysis, evaluation, abstracting, classification, pattern recognition and artificial intelligence.

Information retrieval concept was introduced by Mooers in 1950. It covered organization and communication of information, its cognition, numerical measurements, adaptation and equipment.

Communication and behavioral sciences emerged in 1950s from the earlier work in linguistics and semantics (1933), value inquiry (1938), decision theory (1939), documentation (1945), information theory and cybernetics (1948), general systems theory and information retrieval (1950).

Information science was defined in 1962 as a communication discipline concerned with properties and behavior of information, and its processing for maximum accessibility and usability.

In management science's decision-making the focus was on information transfer, intra-organizational data flow, and scientific research methodology, primarily based on mathematics and statistics.

Information science becomes an objective, subjective and practical mode of inquiry, extended to liberal education (Gorn's 'Cybernetic Pragmatism'), humanities ('Epistemo-dynamics' of Kochen), engineering symbol manipulation (Slamecka), and statistics, cybernetics, bionics, mathematics, library science and documentation.

Confusion between 'science information' and 'information science' is created by a similar confusion between science (totality of systematized recorded knowledge) and research (striving for new knowledge).

"The programmed development of information science might embrace more than the science of research . . . long range role for information science involves active participation in forming a complete subsystem of knowledge which would unify the arts, sciences and professions . . . [overcoming] the limitations of human short-term memory." (pp. 240-41)

---- 1973.

This is a study of relationships between development of fields of recorded knowledge and the limitation of human memory.

If follows G.A. Miller's notion that the span of immediate human memory is limited by learning and nervous system to seven chunks. Number of bits of information can be extended by developing larger chunks, each with more information than before.

Knowledge grows by synthesis of scientists findings, It is formed into individual systems of knowledge, and is combined into larger systems after reaching the 'seven-plus-or-minus two' separate systems, The synthesis may be a product of multiple, simultaneous discoveries.

The above hypothesis is illustrated by a discussion of subsystem formations in mathematics from Euclidean geometry, through calculus, universal gravitation into unified geometry. Each of these subsystems was a result of previous synthesis, averaging seven contributions per each instance.

The suprasaystem incorporates seven sub-suprasaystems, four of them already developed: humanities (1500s), physical sciences (1600s), biological sciences (1700s), and social sciences (1800s); each of these sub-suprasystems is composed of approximately seven disciplinary systems.

Information science is a disciplinary system developed through a number of key synthesis described by the following events: (1) emergence of professional organizations, (2) special libraries' documentation services (1909) (3) the Vannaevar Bush essay in 1945 (4) Bradfrord work in 1948, (5) Mohrhardt's information retrieval in 1950, and finally, the emergence of information science in 1964.

At the same time a similar pattern was manifested in the emergence of behavioral and communication sciences, both affecting the development of information science, linguistics and semantics (1933), value inquiry (1938), decision theory (1939), game theory (1944), documentation (1945), information theory and cybernetics (1948), and general systems and information theories, forming communication and behavioral sciences (1950).

Information science together with other communication oriented disciplines may in a future form a suprasystem unifying the arts, sciences and professions by revolutionary system formation and its evolutionary transformation.

"The formation of a new paradigm, using the evolutionary approach would involve the acquisition and ordering of information elements until a relatively complete and orderly new paradigm is formed. Using a revolutionary approach, information elements would be accumulated in an attempt to reorder or replace the old paradigm . . . the same line of inquiry would be simultaneously revolutionary and evolutionary. (p.120-21)

HARRELSON, LARRY E., 1974:

Harrelson reviews Wasserman's call for a proactive approach in librarianship (1972), in terms of its rhetorics, focusing on the nature of inquiry rather than on the nature of the material studied.

Wasserman's theme is that the librarianship is book-oriented, unresponsive to the patrons needs, and should become information-oriented and client-centered. His argument is three-fold: (1) in the past knowledge, expanding at a slower pace, was completely recorded in print, and the library was able to handle it. (2) Social needs changed and new information forms were developed, while the library remained the same. (3) The library will have to change to proactive, client-centered approach.

The interaction between the emerging proactive librarianship and the traditional, bureaucratic reactive approach resembles the distinction made by N. Frye (1957) between future-directed ideal concept of librarianship, and the society controlled by present status quo. The interaction between the two forces results in a particular structural patter (time-bound myths).

The relationships between the two forces can focus on the negative blocking character of the conflict or on the possible reconciliation. Wasserman selected the former approach, concentrating on the obstructing forces within librarianship. The moving forces are the client-oriented present and future librarians, represented by book-centered, passive librarians.

The change, suggested by Wasserman, will be forced by tight job market and newly developed experimental programs, reconciling or converting the traditional approach rather than repudiating it. "The opposite of this ending is 'the absurd': libraries full of information but not meeting information needs." (p.223)

HARRIS, Michael, 1973:

This is a revisionistic interpretation of the American Public library movement. Harris rejects the 19th century 'uplift theory' as autocratic and elitist approach aimed at stabilization of the American society, disturbed by the new emigration.

Librarians are confusing the function of the library to provide e.g., recreational reading, as a means with the library purpose, e.g., to control the behavior of the people, as the end itself. The failure of the 19th and early 20th centuries to control that behavior lead to the present role of the library as a 'guardian of peoples right to know.'

George Ticknor is considered an 'educator of a common man'. His philosophy was based on the belief that (a) man is perfectible, (b) books can be used as primary means for intellectual perfection, and (c) there is a need for a public library to provide this material free. The goals of this humanitarian and idealistic movement were: (a) to educate common man so that he can follow 'best men'; and (b) to provide books for selected elitist minority of emigrants who can be attracted to the library by providing them with light fiction as a 'carrot.'

Once the people are in the library, the librarians responsibility is to improve the patrons taste for reading. This was a change from the librarians' previous interest in scholarly aspects of librarianship. Librarians were less concerned with theoretical and philosophical matters and more with organization and management aiming at more efficient management.

Librarians attitude was always authoritarian, limiting full access to the collection, by assuming the role of the custodian of public morals, and elitist by serving selected minorities.

This attitude was endorsed by Carnegie, himself a conservative, rigidly moralistic and strong individual, supporting those who wanted to improve themselves. The library, to Carnegie, was a good investment in implementing indirectly the order, stability and economic growth.

The desire of librarians to serve the elitists and at the same time to maintain public support lead to the hypocrisy and bureaucracy; the library between 1920 and 1940 was a social institution without a purpose.

In 1940s some librarians become aware of the mindlessness of a public library, and called for a philosophy of librarianship based on the service to the patron, increasingly arguing for the library mission to protect people's right to know. This was a war period and many of the librarians called for preservation of political democracy, replacing authoritarian approach by neutrality: not to force the patron to learn, but to assist him in that process.

This new philosophy: (a) assumes that right decision needs information, (b) it confirms the importance of education, (c) it allows for passive attitude in the name of philosophical neutrality, (d) it shifts responsibility for any initiative to the patron, and (e) it does not eliminate librarians' elitism.

This view was criticized not for its position but rather for a fear of public reaction to the proposed changes. There is a contradiction in the popular call for public support of the library, arguing that books can have a positive impact on an individual reader, at the same time objecting censorship on the ground that a book cannot harm anyone.

---- 1976a:

"The history of American librarianship can best be viewed as a recurring cycle of fitful and outer-directed commitment to crusades conceived as essential to establishing social stasis and blunting radical change in order to preserve the nation from chaos and ruin, followed by periods of ambivalence in which the library profession, lacking a clear-cut professional view of its role, reverted to a mindless focus on technical and bureaucratic matters. These ambivalent stages were characterized by a lapse of optimism and self-conscious assertion of librarians significance to the national lifeway." (pp.284-5)

Dewey and William Fletcher expected librarians to assume responsibility for guiding reading taste of patrons, endorsing Socratic concept that knowledge creates virtue.

The moral library role was later advanced in 'Americanization' of emigrant and support of efforts to save world for democracy. Although unsuccessful, the dream of a cultural uplifting role is still called for, with however, the main focus on pragmatism, management and efficiency of library operations.

In 1920-1940 periods some librarians criticized the pragmatism and called for a philosophy that would define the library role in a democratic society.

In 1939-45 the new mission of Jeffersonian intellectual freedom and neutrality was formulated, but remained conservative in politics and social conscience.

Harris agrees with Nitecki's procedural, conceptual and contextual service missions of librarianship, but does not belief that those three conceptualizations can be harmoniously integrated in the philosophy of librarianship.

American librarianship is 'outer-directed', insensitive to the issues of lower, middle and minority classes, based on a conservative, reactionary, authoritarian and elitist attitudes, favoring social-cultural elite. "Librarians have for too long abnegated their responsibility to define their role in society. Lacking a clear sense of direction and a firm commitment to the preservation of human values, they have drifted from one 'mission' to another." (p.297)

---- 1976b:

The American public library was founded by authoritarian-elitists leaders like Ticknor whose philosophy influenced the library purpose to (a) educate the majority of lower classes in order to control their behavior, and (b) to provide intellectual resource for the minority elite.

The paradox of working classes acceptance of the concept of a public library at the same time being indifferent to the services offered, is explained by a gradual weakening of political and social authoritarianism, and at the same time, the rise of the equalitarianism in American society.

"From the founding of the Republic, authoritarians had endorsed education of the masses as one means of keeping the people loyal." (p.2228) "While Jefferson argued for education as a guard against aristocracy and rule by the few, most of his Federalist opponents supported educational schemes designed to control the common man not to liberate him." (Ibid.)

The democratic dogma of universal education lead to the support of the public library as a provider of opportunities for developing equality. However, the workingmen, accepting that dogma as given, were concentrated on the issues related to working and living conditions, ignoring the library services as irrelevant to their struggle. This, Harris calls, the decline of the democratic dogma stressing the importance of universal public enlightenment through education.

---- 1977:

Methodology of the studies of library history should reflect the Jeffersonian-Jacksonian-Rooseveltian liberal, progressive continuum. This however, was not the case till the 1940s; at that time libraries shown little interest in protecting the individual's first-amendment civil liberties.

The historical perspectives of library historians are two-fold: (a) revisionistic liberals stress the librarians values, ideas, and opinions; and (b) the conservative historians focus on the consequences of library services, overlooking the issues of professional self-awareness and prejudices in responding to changing social environment.

Professional concerns are divided between (a) critical research to understand the profession, and (b) professional attitude of piety in praising it.

"The revisionist historians bring a new sense of critical scholarship to library history [providing] understanding of the forces that shaped the history of librarianship in America." (p.42) "The old progressive synthesis has been persuasively challenged." (Ibid.)

---- 1986:

The problem of library research lies in the positivist epistemological assumptions and a 'pluralistic' viewpoint'.

Positivistic epistemology focuses on scientific, apolitical methodology in the study of library management. In this approach library science is considered as a natural, quantitative science, and library scientists are value-neutral, aiming at discovering general laws that govern library operations and explain, predict and control its functions.

Pluralistic worldview postulates that (a) authors have freedom of expression, (b) publishers are neutral in selecting topics for publication, (c) librarians maintain neutrality in serving their patrons and (c) library users have pluralistic interest.

As a result, library research focuses on administrative evaluation of performance, productivity and usefulness of library services, leading to reductionistic definitions of the relevance of efficiency in library management.

The pluralistic perspective "has dictated long and broad structured silence relative to the ways in which social, economic, and cultural power relations shape the nature and extent of library service in America." (p.222) "The positivist epistemology . . . has severely limited the range of questions that can be investigated and has rigidly defined the characteristics of relevant answers [eliminating] the possibility of grasping the complex, embedded nature of library service in America." (Ibid.)

The author proposes the theory of library service in America that focuses "attention on the role of the library as a consumer of high culture, and contradicts the definition of the library as 'primarily a producer of civilization.'" (p. 241)

As marginal institutions, libraries are responsible for transmitting and reproducing "high culture in printed form."

(p. 242) The theory is elaborated by a number of propositions referring to high culture creators, library mission and operations, and the characteristics of its users.

HARRIS, ROMA M., 1989:

This survey examined librarians opinion concerning different approaches to bibliographic instructions. There is no consensus about the teaching role of the librarian, patron's self-sufficiency in the use of the library or the 'spoon-feeding' provision of information required by the library patrons. The preferred approaches reflected librarians views based on their training in bibliographic instruction and the size of the library involved.

Patrick Wilson is for the instruction: the degree of independence of the patron in the use of a library depends on the knowledge of opportunities available. Reference is a teaching function in the use of library tools.

Pauline Wilson is against instruction: the concept of a librarian as a teacher is a fiction. Instruction interferes with the concept of patrons' self-sufficiency and discourages independent learning and research.

The author suggests a compromise: instruction is not automatically appropriate for all situations. In teaching the use of a library, a patron can be encouraged to be independent, but instruction is definitively needed for children, and some patrons and is determined by library environment.

---- 1993:

The author maintains that "some consideration of gender is essential in understanding the forces shaping the future of the field . . . acknowledging the fact that, for more than 100 years, library work in North America has been women's work." (p.874)

"Librarians are in danger of abandoning the core of their discipline - that makes them unique from others in the information sector - at the very time their skills in organizing knowledge and negotiating information needs are both very much in demand." (p.876) "Librarians, in the mindless pursuit of status, lose sight of their own value by breaking their connection with women's work." (Ibid.)

HARWELL, RICHARD. 1960:

Librarianship is concerned with books, people and ideas. The unity of librarianship is represented by generalist-librarian.

"In an age of specialization librarians are generalists. In an age of mechanization they are humanists. In an age of conformity they are individualists." (p.655) The triad of books, people, and ideas is the essence of librarianship which is not a storehouse but a unity of various treasuries of ideas.

Communication, automation, and documentalism are the secondary issues. Specialization is important, but the library is administered by library generalist.

HARWELL RICHARD and ROGER MICHENER, 1974:

The paper criticizes the Michael Harris essay on public library myth (1973). Harwell maintains that the 19th century public library movement in Boston was not prompted by the intellectual elitists attempt to impose its morality on people, but by the republicans who believed in the essence of liberalism of the Enlightenment as expressed in the American democracy.

Longfellow's letter "gives a positive bases to the philosophy of librarianship that made 19th-century libraries a force for good in their own time. It gives a historic ground for the idea of library college, and the open university. Most of all, it reinforces faith in libraries." (p.963)

The self-interest motivating the founders of public libraries was the most reliable of human motives. It was perceived as the willingness of citizens to transcend self-interest in their devotion to common good. The motive was neither elitists nor intellectual; these terms were not then used in their present Marxian critical connotation.

American intellectuals developed the populist philosophy based on the belief in a superior morality of ordinary people.

The Founding Fathers were not populists, they were educated and intellectual leaders of ordinary people. The administration of a public library was weakened by bureaucracy not by the self-interest.

"Revisionism stands perilously close to pogromism [and it] embodies two secondary intellectual traditions . . . of anti- intuitionalism, and . . . antitraditionalism ." (p.962) "It is valuable, . . . instructive; it is also partisan and ideological, and therefore, somewhat flawed." (Ibid.)

The public library movement fulfilled its mission: "the 19th century was the age of the public library," (p.963) "The 20th Century is the age of the research library . . . perhaps the next age of the library will be . . . less book-oriented, and more information-oriented." (Ibid.)

HATT, FRANK, 1961:

Hatt calls for reader-centered ethics. "By recognizing the importance to our culture of all kinds of communication, including . . . recreational reading, we can begin to find for ourselves a function other than of providing a neutral pipeline from the book-production industry to its book-consumers." (p.348)

Since culture is a concept with a constantly shifting meaning, the notion of cultural standard ought to be replaced by one of tension created by the increased choice between variety of cultural offering, restricted by the social controls of new media of communication.

Librarianship encourages the use of the records of culture. The book contributes to the culture indirectly as a tool, and directly as a reading material. Librarians are responsible for creating environment favorable for both the book use and its reading, by making it accessible to patrons.

The distinction between the library practice and theory of reading is reflected in different library emphasis and standards. For example, Richards distinguished between 'scientific' and 'emotive' reading; Savage differentiated between reading without and with purpose, between 'general' and 'a serious reader', Mills discriminated between information retrieval and storekeeping activities, and McColvin gave priorities for library support of serious reading.

---- 1963:

The author discusses the role of the public library in its social context. He suggests, that the search for a philosophy of librarianship or professional status are the expressions of professional guilt for not relating to anything outside its own discipline.

The modern western society went through three revolutions: (a) industrial, structuring the society into different classes, (b) democratic, creating new class-consciousness, and (c) cultural, expressed in the process of extending learning to all people. The emergence of Mechanics' Institute was motivated by the working classes desire for self-help, supported by philanthropy of educated classes.

The British public library movement is traced back to that period's new patrons demand for the right to read what they want to, free from being told what to read. This change resulted in librarians unwillingness to suggest to the patrons any specific reading material. Librarians interpreted their role as providers of books, avoiding controversy about reading value-judgments. Even today, the concept of neutrality is interpreted by some as central to librarianship, overlooking its historical origin in meeting a specific social need. "The revolution has passed now to another phase and demands a different response." (p.15)

"What many people need now is guidance in the choice of the uses to which their literacy may be put," (p.16) guiding their choice of what to read.

HAUGH, W.S.1953:

"There can be no autonomous philosophy of public librarianship, only a philosophy of life as applied to librarianship." (p.237) "There is nevertheless the body of principles and relative values which command overwhelming support. These principles may be summed up by the statement that a legitimate aim of the community is to maintain and improve its material culture and spiritual standards and the function of public library is to assist these aims . . . the proper criterion is one of quality." (Ibid.)

Philosophical ideas are abstractions that must be translated into political action, with public opinion as a final arbiter. There is no clear distinction between education and entertainment, fiction and non-fiction; basic to all is the criterion of quality .

HAUPTMAN, ROBERT, 1976:

"The scholars of librarianship do not concern themselves with ethical problems . . . scholars who do take interest in this area almost all agree that personal beliefs must be subservient to the needs of the patron. . . . there nonetheless exists a subtle countermovement . . . that the librarian does not have the right to abjure moral decision-making . . . The danger of confusing censorship with ethical responsibility . . . to abjure an ethical commitment in favor of anything, is to abjure one's individual responsibility." (pp.626-7)

The author tested this ethical dilemma by asking 13 reference librarians for the material on building an explosive device. None refused the request because they believed that "the nature of the request is irrelevant; the librarian does not have the right to discriminate against a patron . . . [this] appeared to abjure responsibility to society in favor of responsibility to the role of librarian as disseminator of information." (p. 627)

---- 1979:

Distinction is made between ethical action, ethics of convenience and situational ethics. Ethical action can be motivated either by an order (authority) or conscience. Ethics of convenience is subject to expediency, while situational ethical action is motivated by a particular situation.

Ethical issues vary with each profession, library ethics addresses issue such as conflict of interest requiring librarian's objectivity in providing information, confidentiality of the patron's query and responsibility of reliable reference services. "The sine qua non of professionalism is the willingness to assume responsibility for one's action." (p. 199)

---- 1988:

Kantian ethical principles consist of (1) good will (desire to act correctly, (2) duty (adherence to the law), (3) categorical imperative (universalizable action resulting in no harm done) and (4) ethical action evaluated in terms of ends not means.

Professional obligations include: (1) standards, (2) responsibility and (3) duty. The ethical dilemma occurs when opposing obligations are in conflict. Ethical controversies in librarianship are of two kinds: (a) professional neutrality 'no politics, no religion, no morals', and (b) professional decision making with responsibility for the action taken.

Library professional code consists of a commitment to flexibility, intellectual freedom, access to information, and personal integrity. The code requires: (1) excellent service, (2) opposition to censorship, (3) confidentiality of librarian-patron relations, (4) fair treatment of library staff, (5) incompatibility between personal and professional ethics, and (6) avoidance of conflict of interest. The code is not enforcing compliance and there is no clear consensus on specific ethical conduct.

"The most difficult and controversial dilemma faced by librarians is the duality of social responsibility . . . and the necessity to defend intellectual freedom . . . that is, the antagonism between advocacy and neutrality." (p. 94)

---- 1991:

This issue of Library Trends, edited by Hauptman, contains a number of essays on a broad and diverse range of subjects related to ethics in librarianship. They include confidentiality, reference in special libraries, censorship, relationships between ethics, technology and dissemination of knowledge.

The topics of interest to the profession in the near future will be "the dissemination of scholarly information and reevaluation of the peer review process, patron confidentiality, conflict of interest, technology, and information liability, including the possibility of malpractice suits." (p.200)

HAVARD-WILLIAMS, PETER, 1987:

Information existed since the beginning of communication, the information as a concept (organized information) emerged with the development of industrial society. Computerized information revolutionized information processing, the development of reprography made dissemination of information less expensive and the convergence of multimedia technologies facilitated global information transfer.

HAVERLOCK, RONALD G., 1977:

The library as a knowledge storehouse changes into the knowledge center by its involvement in 'problem-solving' processes. Problem solving is a part of a stimulus-response circle, a repeating process in search of satisfactory solution of information needs. The stimulus is started by felt need for information, the response is the action that satisfies it. The process consists of five steps: (1) felt need, (2) diagnosis (articulated as a problem), (3) search for solution, (4) choice of solution, and (5) application of solution, ending in need reduction.

Change specialists become (1) implementers, putting information into practice, (2) evaluators and catalysts, (3) need arousers, need articulators, and (4) process helpers teaching patrons to help themselves.

Problem-solving process is bi-polar: (a) internal closed system involved in the search within itself, and (b) external, open system searching for a solution outside the system. The two are linked through reciprocal simulation and feedback on effectiveness of resource person linking the user with more remote resources.

HAYES, ROBERT M., 1969:

The confluence of increased demand for information and the new technology resulted in the emergence of a number of information systems such as: (a) centers in technical fields, (b) data banks in social and political fields, (c) management information systems in business, and (d) command and control systems in military.

Hayes provides succinct definitions of the terms involved in the information systems. (a) Data is raw material, or a fact (a statement of truth). (b) Information is the result of processing data such as transmission, selection and analysis. (c) Knowledge is accumulated data. (d) Wisdom is a subjective, ethical judgment. (e) Information system is a complex of phenomena in systems such as physical structures, cybernetic responses to environment, chemical and metabolic balance or information processes. (f) Library in this context is a physical structure of physical records and mechanical flow of materials, viewed either as an administrative organization managing task performance, or as an information processing center acquiring and providing access to data. (g) Information science is the study of the information producing processes in any information system such as information science in genetics, social theory, or documentation.

"The purpose of information science is to develop tools for [complex] decisions, and its role in library education is to provide the student with the basic abilities to use those tools." (p. 224)

---- 1991:

The author defines "set of measures of information as that property of data (i.e., recorded symbols) which represents (and measures) effects of processing of them." (p.268). Relevant terms, historical background and problems related to the measurements of information are discussed in detail.

The data are measured at four levels as: (1) entropy of transfer, (2) weighted entropy in selection, (3) syntactic and semantic measures of structuring, and (4) dimensional reduction of data. "Each in the succession of measures generalized from the earlier ones, involving the addition of variables that characterize the additional level of processing." (Ibid.)

Among the relevant terms, Hayes reviews the perceptions of 'knowledge' and information by Boorstin, Nitecki and Paiasley. (a) Boorstin distinguishing between 'being informed' and nonsensical 'being knowledged'. (b) Nitecki describes knowledge on three levels: (1) as identical or nearly identical with information, (2) mutually exclusive, and (3) same when knowledge is content oriented and different when information is process oriented. c) Paisley refers to knowledge as 'functional characterization of information'.

Hayes points to the importance of (a) distinguishing between "the basic store of internalized information (with its structure) and 'intelligence' as the means for internal processing of it." (p. 275). Knowledge may be a part of individuals' internal cognitive structure, a part of social memory in the library collection of records, or in the computer's expert system.

---- 1993:

Information science should be discussed in the context of related fields such as librarianship, computer, management or engineering sciences. The definition of information depends on the processes that produce it, hence it can be understood only in the context of a system that produces it.

Information system is a part of a more general system that creates information. Hence, information science is defined as "the study of information producing processes in any information system in which they may occur" (p.368); it depends on methodologies used in the study of phenomena in related disciplines. Among information systems relevant to information science are: computer system processing data, computer-based information science utilizing computer techniques, library and information centers and social and biological systems.

Initially, information science education (a) focused on its technical and theoretical aspects (Slamecka, Yovits, and Robert Taylor), or (b) was considered an integral part of library science (Don Swanson, Perry Kent, Allan Goldwyn, Robert Haynes, Harold Borko and Allen Kent).

---- 1994:

"Librarianship is the profession concerned with preserving the records of society and providing access to them and their content. 'Library science' is the body of techniques that underline practice of librarianship." (p.275) "'Information science' is the theoretical study of properties of recorded symbols and of means by which they are processed. Such a study has roots deep in philosophy, mathematics, science, and scholarship." (Ibid.)

Among other terms used for information science (a) 'documentation' refers to either (1) physical and conceptual aspects of information, or (b) classification of documents.

'Information retrieval' focuses on users interaction and search strategy, while traditional reference concentrates on library resources. The differences between the meaning of these two terms are minimized with the introduction of computers and new focus on question-negotiation processes.

Information science, considered a natural science, stresses acquisition of new data, its indexing and abstracting; the humanistic and social sciences approach stresses analysis of past records. Information system analysis provides tools for accomplishing informational objectives; information systems design develops alternative means for these processes.

Of particular interest to management schools are: management of information, operations research formalizing decision-making processes and the General Systems Theory. Computer aspects of information science are thought in engineering schools.

"Together librarianship and information science share concern with each of them, but they approach them from different perspectives and with different priorities. Each of these threads not only interweaves across librarianship and information science but within each other." (p.280) "The richness of the fabric of relationships thus defies analytical description but is exhibited in the daily interaction between these two fields." (Ibid.)

HAYES, ROBERT M., and others, 1964:

The essay discusses three views relevant to the philosophy of librarianship.

(a) Robert M. Hayes, an information scientist endorses the view that the records of bibliographical resources should be considered as a total system. He believes that information science will become an integral part of library education, representing the theoretical foundation of librarianship.

(b) Ralph H. Parker, a university librarian distinguishes between two conflicts in the philosophy of access to libraries and books: (1) preference for the direct access to books; the bibliographic devices such as indexes and catalogs are needed only because of the inadequate system of books shelving, and (2) consideration of bibliographical guides as the best access to the collection; stack arrangement is necessitated only by inadequacy of bibliographic control. Browsing is an admission of inadequacy of indexing.

(c) Gilbert W. King points to the structural nature of library information that is as complex as language itself.

HEILIGER, EDWARD M., AND PAUL B. HENDERSON, 1971:

Management system influences physical and environmental systems by manipulating data. Data processing includes: discovery, identification, description, transformation, accumulation, manipulation and delivery.

Library system provides services of relatively small object-handling systems and data-handling system covering total holdings. The two systems are interrelated, defining the reality of a library as an information system, responsible for generation, collection, storage, manipulation and delivery of both data and objects. The objects (books) that are most available are least requested. Data deals with the representation of something, not the things themselves; they can be about the source, content, process or about the objects themselves.

In automation every object that enters the system is subject to absolute identity control. Identity is not embodied in the objects or data but arises from their existence. It assures the recognition of the retrieved objects that represent data.

The simplicity of number and alphabet systems conveys complex and abstract ideas. Physical objects and coded data about them are linked in preserving ideas in a physical format, by means of using different systems of coding.

"The library needs to reconsider what it is trying to accomplish and then to explore how the goals can be served. There must be minimal concern for human data processing, but great concern for human convenience. There must be clear recognition of the hardware that serves the needed functions and less concern for the functions that suit the equipment."

(p. 232)

HEILPRIN, LAURENCE B., 1979:

Heilprin suggests that "two obvious functions which, adopted in time, might maintain its competitive independence in the information ecology [are]: systematic continuing education during the professional life of the community, and community support of and participation in research on the fundamentals of the information process. The two are not independent but together 'necessary and sufficient'." (p. 389)

Library community can be preserved in the rapidly evolving environment by striving for efficiency in carrying present functions, by supporting research in information science and by continuing education of librarians in science, technology, and in skills and forms of information science organization. "Only in this way could a well-balanced system be set up, a system with scientific leadership generating its own adaptation and controlling its own internal feedback of knew knowledge [allowing] the community both [to] perform its essential functions and . . . compete for continuity in the ecology of information organizations." (p. 393)

---- 1985:

Information theory is considered a necessary but not sufficient aspect of information science. Shannon's theory of communication is not fully applicable to information science because it deals only with statistical properties of data and Gaussian noise, independent of communication channels, while information science is more concerned with more difficult filtering of system-depended noise.

On the other hand, information science is closely related to evolutionary theory. "The process, 'becoming informed' must have arisen through adaptation by organisms of cognitive/affective patterns mapped onto some parts of themselves for their instantaneous . . . long term self-regulation." (p. 62)

The receiver and user of information (observer/responded) are essential in information science. The process of becoming informed relates to the interaction between prior, internally stored and new information. The internal information is both cognitive and affective; the "memory stores much of what sensors receive and internally modify, together with the responsive feelings associated with the modified signals." (p.138) The human feelings such as love or hate, eluded external representation, creating 'a discontinuity in an information circuit' and constituted an important part of information interpretation.

Since the recipient is the principal component of information system, the interpretation is the principle issue. Furthermore, the theory-neutral methodology of observation is untenable; all scientific data are theory-ladden. "What is observable is strongly conditioned by, and relative to background knowledge, linguistic abilities, the development and conditioning of cognitive processes, and the causal processes through which the observer causally interacts with the world he studies. " (p.187)

HEILPRINN, LAURENCE B., AND FREDERICK L. GOODMAN, 1965:

"Searching for information in a collection of stored messages and searching for information in the process of education have been subject to and shaped by one basic constraint - the very limited rates of flow of information into human sense channels . . . each have surmounted the same difficulty in the same way by . . . homomorphic transformations on messages which greatly reduce their word (or bit) content while preserving certain minimum invariants which identify the messages . . . reduced further by means of the equivalence classes derived from the vocabularies in which the reduced messages are recorded." (p.163)

HEIM, MICHAEL, 1993:

Virtual reality defined as 'the totally inclusive computer simulation' is discussed in the context of philosophies of Plato, Leibniz and Heidegger. However, as pointed out by Patrick Wilson, the philosophical discussion is ornamental, "sometimes anachronistic and hyperbolic . . . the style definitively that of pop philosopher . . . all in all, this is not an impressive contribution to our understanding of the new electronic world." (P.Wilson, 1994, p. 88)

HEKTOEN, FAITH, 1982:

Basic in library services for children is the collection of material for all children from infancy upwards. The author quotes Pauline Wilson's definition of the philosophy of children service: "the intellectual scope of knowledge in children services is larger than the content of children book. It extends to the knowledge of society and all of its concerns." (p.26) It includes reading beyond a classroom, referring to a broad environment by developing children literary taste and reading habit, with emphasis upon individual child sense of identity, emotional, physical and intellectual needs.

HENDRY, J.D.1988:

Importance of library services to underprivileged and poor people is based on professionalism of librarianship defined as a dedicated and caring public institution. A library is more than an information provider, it services cultural needs of a society.

"We in public service are abdicating our responsibilities not only by allowing the intellectual argument on the positive philosophy underpinning public service to be lost - but to be lost by default." (p.38) "The community services were provided by the community as a whole, for the benefit of the individuals in that community." (Ibid.)

HENNESSY J.A., 1981a:

How can librarians argue that their work is important and not be involved in politics? How can they reinforce an open democratic society, avoid partisan political positions, ignore the potential impact of libraries on political values and political authority, and at the same time exercise the judgment about who should get what and how?

"Aristotle's observation that inequality arises when two equals are treated unequally or when unequals are treated equally", ( pp.127-8) implies that a neutral library cannot disseminate survival information effectively. All people are equal, but some may become more equal as a result of political organization and political power, hence political information in libraries is crucial.

---- 1981b:

Librarianship of politics and the politics of librarianship are closely related and librarians operate within state and community environments. They consider themselves either as unrecognized legislators or as political victims. Individual librarians 'as guerrilla partisans' can determine their own and their profession's political status by participating in the politics of librarianship.

"Libraries have an important role in promoting political education and political literacy, even to the extent of challenging state power in precise ways and systematically working against the mainstream version of the librarianship of politics." (p. 251)

HENRY, W.E., 1917:

"The library is the instrument and the librarian is the social agent which brings the past to the present in preparation for the future, and thru these the individual is self educated for social ends." (p.351)

"Is there a body of knowledge and information covering the field and is that body of information well formulated and organized? If we answer in the affirmative . . . then there is a place for a profession and a place for a professional school which shall transmit and enlarge upon this body of knowledge and put into practice the doctrine which the school stands for." (p.352) Librarianship provides a great social service "not because the library is a greater service in the sense of greater value than any of the others, but because it is more comprehensive, more all inclusive than any other of the professions." (Ibid.)

HERNER, SAUL, 1974:

In the long history of librarianship there were more changes in the last 25 years than since the Gutenberg's movable print. Yet, the basic concepts of librarianship remain the same, following the saying by Alphonse Karr, that "the more things change, the more they remain the same." (p. 31)

Recent changes were introduced in the technological innovations of microforms, facilitating storage, searching and display of material, information storage and retrieval, adaptation of computers and documentalists interests in unpublished research reports.

"It is not enough . . . to continue what we have been doing, in abundance and with increasing speed, when we are not at all sure we should be doing it in the first place. We have to have a better understanding of the consequences of what we do and what we ought to be doing . . . different types of scholarly, research, and professional activities require different types of information support . . . different types of information are best sought by different means . . . the greatest scholarly contributors are the most efficient seekers and users of supportive information. What are we doing about those truisms? ... very little." (pp. 33-34)

---- 1984:

"Information science is the product of convergences of library science, computer and punched card science, R&D documentation, abstracting and indexing, communication science, behavioral science, micro- and macro-publishing, video and optical science, and various other fields and disciplines." (p.157)

Major contributions to information science include:

1945: Vanneaver Bush: As We Think, a hypothetical 'Memex' storing and searching device.

1948: Royal Society Scientific Information Conference initiated new type of information scientists addressing information and library techniques.

1951: Jesse Shera and Margaret Egan, Bibliographic Organization: provided anthology of trends in classification, indexing, forms of publication and searching. Taube's "Functional Approach to Bibliographic Organization," described bibliographic coordination, and Ralph Shaw's "Management, Machines and the Bibliographic Problems of the Twentieth Century", provided a critique of the use of available mechanical devices in a bibliographic search.

1953-59: Martimer Taube and associates, "Studies in Coordinate Indexing" introduced uniterm indexing.

1958: "Proceedings of the International Conference on Scientific Information" focused on intellectual and mechanical aspects of information organization, dissemination and users interactions.

1963: Joseph Becker and Robert Hayes, Information Storage and Retrieval; Tools, Elements, Theories, was the first textbook for information science as a discrete discipline.

1963: Science, Government, and Information Report ('Weinberg Report') dealt with relationships between private and government information groups.

1969: NAS/NAE Committee on Scientific and Technical Information, Scientific and Technical Communication delved in analyses of national and international information policy and technology

1973: Lancaster and Fayen's Information Retrieval On-Line was the first handbook for online searching.

1982: Lancaster's Libraries and Librarians in an Age of Electronics summarized the impact of computer and communication technology on librarianship.

Among other important contributions were: (a) Robert Fairthorne who provided analyses of the information science. (b) Eugene Garfield introduced science citation indexes. (c) John Mauchley co-designed first electronic computer ENIAC. (d) Calvin Mooers introduced terms 'information retrieval' and 'descriptors'.

HEZEL, LINDA and ANN R. JACOBSON, 1987:

This is the description of an inter-disciplinary curriculum in a nursing program. A nurse is considered a community resource broker in schools, churches, homes and work places. This role is not the same as that of the social worker or guidance counselor.

The objectives of the curriculum include (a) identification of clients' needs, (b) identification of community human care services, (c) linkage of clients with local resources, and (d) follow up review of information and retrieval.

"Information and referral is described as "a sequential process or continuum made up of specific activities that are pursued depending on the client's need or request." (p. 19)

HICKS WARREN B., and ALMA M. TILLIN, 1977:

The authors define "philosophy and goals of multimedia [as] service to the public, accountability, and the enhancement of human life through the effective management of the resources of human knowledge." (p.15)

The philosophical concepts are discussed in the context of the systems, focusing on the three key notions: (a) purpose (preset objectives), (b) function (operating procedures), and (c) parts (separate areas of activities within the system).

The procedural steps in the systems methodology include: (1) purpose identification, (2) goals statement, (3) definition of objectives, (4) plan for implementation, (5) implementation (effecting the system), and (6) evaluation and revision.

" These steps involve, consecutively, the orderly statement of philosophy and purpose of the intended system, translation of these purposes and values into broad goals and desired outcomes, the definition of breakdown of these goals into measurable objectives in terms of validity, feasibility, measurability, and related factors and then the design of a plan from . . . alternatives which can permit effective implementation and evaluation of the process used to get the system into action." (p.16)

HOADLEY, IRENE B., 1991:

The author discusses the impact of a shift in librarianship from ownership to access, and from free to paid library services. Although there is no one model for all types of libraries, the author advises that "it is time to put aside access versus ownership and concentrate on access and ownership. It is time for librarians, publishers, and utilities to begin to work together to provide a future that serves our users rather than ourselves . . . to determine our future rather than having someone else do it for us . . . and move forward to a future that meets the needs of our users." (p.195)

HOARE, PETER, 1987:

Throughout history libraries were affected by cultural changes. For example, the political importance of the libraries was acknowledged by people like Martin Luther and Lenin, both using libraries to spread their doctrines.

Library response was twofold: (a) cultural changes were reflected in library collections, and changing role of the librarian and (b) emergence of a role as agents of change themselves, illustrated by library changing missions throughout history.

HOBBS, JERRY R., and ROBERT C. MOORE, 1985:

Authors discuss the scope of knowledge programmed in artificial intelligence (axiomatization). One of the problems is an exclusively technological approach to artificial intelligence, which focuses on a computer programming rather than on human models, or psychological motivation on a cognitive level below the level of consciousness.

For example (a) the concept of 'expert knowledge' is based on specialized knowledge in a particular expert system, (b) in cognitive anthropology the focus is on the study of 'other' cultures; in the naive theory one attempts to elucidate level of knowledge so basic that it is common to all cultures, and (c) in lexical semantics the difference is made between linguistic and general knowledge, focusing on the former, while the distinction is overlooked in naive theory.

The extend of knowledge base axiomatization is determined by the number of primitive concepts included in that axiomatization (the core knowledge). The core knowledge is based on the commonsense theories about the world, as held by ordinary people.

Commonsense theories include axiomatization in physical (material), psychological (beliefs) and social (values) systems, referred to as 'naive' theories (e.g., naive physics). Each axiomatization focuses not on the things as they are, but as they are ordinarily conceived by non-specialists.

New domains are learned by using previously developed theories as metaphors for the new domain. Although formalization as a tool in research is necessary in every discipline, one has to avoid "the imperialism of formal logic, the tendency of formalizers to look down on informal work, an instantiation of the more general condescension of the hard sciences toward the soft." (p.xxii) "Formalization is a trick that can be learned. It is no substitute for insight. (Ibid.)

HOEL IVAR Hoel, A.L., 1991:

Hoel reviews the possible use of philosophical hermeneutics of experience as a model in information science research. The approach is based on the philosophy of Hans-Georg Gadamer and his 'principle of effective-history'. "The main idea is that text, through the time it has been subject of interpretation, has been the generator of experience that unescapably plays a role when [interpreted] today . . . We cannot ourselves choose the viewpoint from which we want to understand, it is given to us, mostly unconsciously, by effective-history." (pp.77-78)

HOFSTADTER, DOUGLAS R., 1985:

In the chapter discussing his philosophical interpretation of artificial intelligence, the author makes some observations about information-processing model of cognition. Using the example of pattern recognition of letterforms, he focuses on the human mind's ability to recognize and reproduce forms.

Hofstadter criticizes the researchers in artificial intelligence for their rigidity and wide scope, contradicting the scientific method of focusing on the simplest aspects of the problems. For example, "if you choose to get involved in medical diagnosis at the expert level, then you are going to get mired in the host of technical problems that have nothing to do with how the mind works." (p. 637)

These studies often overlook subcognitive activities in the mind. People perceive patterns often without knowing where to look for them. It is the common sense, a domain-independent, ability to select and find unanticipated similarities between different concepts, without thinking. "Something fundamental is missing in the orthodox AI 'information-processing' model of cognition . . . some sort of substrata from which intelligence emerges as an epiphenomenon." (p.643).

There is a difference between the properties of the objects and the statistical ensembles of them. Symbols can be computational as tokens (e.g., ASCII codes of 'seven bits'), but not as symbols that symbolize or denote meaning. The latter meaning of symbols reflects brain's structure, illustrated by the metaphor of an ant colony. Individual ants, like neural firing in brain, are moving around, touching each other, forming larger teams, like pesters of neural patterns, triggering other patterns without any central manipulating program. From such activities in the brain various symbols emerge, uncontrolled by our will or any logical rules. "We cannot decide what we will think of, nor how our thoughts will progress." (p. 648). Symbols manipulate our mind by a large number of interactive subcognitive structures.

Data by themselves do not carry meaning, they are triggered by patterns represented by symbols, which however, _do not symbolize specific, real, physical objects. The fundamental active symbols of the brain represent semantic categories - classes in AI terminology." (p.651) Thus, "subcognition at the bottom will drive cognition at the top . . . [activities] at that cognitive top level will neither have been written or anticipated by any programmer. This is the essence of . . . statistically emergent mentality." (p.652)

It is not an individual ant, but the colony as a whole, that works toward some goals. Only by considering the totality of such work, the purpose of ants' activities can be statistically determined.

Mass communication is defined as a transfer among groups that a single individual could not pass to another." (p.662)

In computing thoughts, or information processes, computed are the descriptions of potential, alternative behavior of the though-processes, not their exact patterns.

The methodology suggested is that of a commonsense, or geometric, rather than algebraic, mathematical approach. In the algebraic approach "long sequences of operations are compounded out of shorter sequences," one relies on the sequences of operations as wholes. In geometric approach the focus is on individual sequences, each justified in terms of the overall pattern. The former approach is efficient but risky, the latter inefficient but reliable. (p. 354)

HOLLADAY, JANICE W., 1982:

"Academic libraries, in general, do not provide information; they provide access to sources of information. The shift to provision of information in an academic institution requires the librarian to be proactive and involved in the substantive work of the institution." (p.266) The shift to the role of a mediator between library patrons and the recorded resources requires a skill in interpersonal communication, by which one can relate information needs of individual patrons to the available resources.

HOLLEY, EDWARD G., 1985:

"The author discusses the types of knowledge that should define the academic librarian. Four types are mentioned; (1) a background in the history and development of higher education, (2) an appreciation for the history of scholarship and learning, (3) an understanding of how knowledge is obtained in various disciplines, and (4) an ability to evaluate research findings. Widespread ignorance about the nature of colleges and universities - their history, mission, and politics, often leads to counter-productive action." (p. 462)

Commenting on the paper, (a) I.B. Hoadley note that library continues traditional service, but in a newly automated environment; (b) Herbert S. White concludes that "in academic libraries there have been technological changes, but virtually no philosophical ones . . . we haven't examined any of the premises of the information gathering, analysis, and dissemination process. Until that happens, the changes continue to be cosmetic." (H.S.White, 1985,p. 477).

HOLLIDAY, S.C., 1939:

Instead of being a 'literary gent', considering beauty of thoughts more important that thoughts themselves, or a middleman for literary art, librarian should be a literary critic in book selection, and be "a scientist of analytical investigation on the one part, and ordered synthesizing on the other . . . devoted to what has been termed 'the service of unified knowledge,'" (p.35) making available to everybody an 'ordered statement' of the present state of knowledge in all areas of learning.

HOLLNAGEL, ERIK, 1978:

Hermeneutics is an understanding of a text by a dialectic process between the whole and its parts. Cognition is a perception and categorizing. The two concepts are similar in the use of analysis by synthesis. They differ in (1) validation of the interpretation of a meaning. In hermeneutics it is approximate; in cognitive paradigm the external validation is a consequence of a direct communication between the sender and recipient of a message. (2) In hermeneutical paradigm process of understanding is conscious; in cognitive paradigm it is unconscious, automatic. However, both approaches point to the same phenomena in different but compatible ways; the differences express the way the two paradigms appear rather than their basic structures. Both are weak in their generation of an initial guess.

Recent interest of cognitive psychology in non-experimental phenomena such as understanding, introduced new vocabulary (information, input, processing, coding, subroutine) and use of computer, serving as an intermediary between behavioral observations and introspection.

Understanding is the object of analysis and the tool by which that analysis is carried out, thus leading to the notion of 'understanding of understanding', involving two issues: (1) the event of understanding the text, and (2) understanding of 'understanding and interpretation' as such.

The hermeneutical circle is a formulation of a principle of the global meaning of a text, articulated through a process in which the meaning of the parts is determined by the whole. It allows for description of understanding without making any assumptions of a specific kind of understanding in a dialectic process.

The dialectic is not only between the whole and its parts but also between comprehension and explanation as two ways of describing the same phenomenon. The part-whole dialectics focuses on the interdependence between understanding parts and the whole, producing an approximation to the intended meaning.

Explanation is an analysis of the whole into parts, comprehension a synthesis of the parts into a united whole - both repeatedly interacting between themselves (a hermeneutic circle), each bringing new results based on previous understanding. Thus text initially can have a number of different interpretations or meanings, the intended meaning is not immediately given; one assumes it and then validates the guess in the text.

In cognitive psychology the interest is in specific instances of understanding in terms of how we perceive, categorize, recall or retrieve specific instances. In pattern recognition the problem is to find a recognition function that could pair signals and messages. The signal can be a sentence in one language and a message in another. Thus the transformation of a signal into a message requires something functionally equivalent to an understanding of the meaning in the signal.

In the cognitive analysis-by-synthesis procedure (analysis achieved through internal synthesis of signals) the understanding of a signal is achieved by producing hypothetical signal from a guessed message; received signal is analyzed, the message is guessed and used to synthesize a hypothetical signal, which then is compared to the actual signal. The analysis is completed if the two are identical or very similar.

Thus the understanding, which takes place in a real time is a reciprocal interaction between two processes; one produces a guess or an expectation of a meaning in a message, the other tests this guess; both resulting in a relative understanding of the message.

The understanding means that a relationship has been established between the present message and experience, or base knowledge of an individual; the paradigm of understanding must contains a description of the way this relation is established. The relation must be particular so that what is understood is the meaning intended by a sender.

The process of understanding is thus twofold: (1) generating the possible meaning of the message, (2) finding its intended meaning, relating a reciprocal interaction between generating and producing a guess and testing its correspondence to intended meaning.

The purpose of a hermeneutical circle is to produce not the correct understanding or interpretation of a text, but the best approximation leading to a best Gestalt, contingent upon time and amount of resources available.

---- 1980:

Rigorous definition of information is not as essential as similar definitions in natural sciences because of its relation to the behavior expressed in language.

More important is the concept of uncertainty and lack of information. A comparison is made with psychology, economics, sociology and law, which experienced a similar problem. Natural sciences deal with issues not easily observable in everyday life, and hence linguistically nonexistent. Special language is needed to study these phenomena not described in natural language. In behavioral sciences we know what we are talking about without first rigorously defining the experience. But it also leads to a philosophical question of how we know what other people know and the validity of introspection and self-reporting. The major concern is however on the behavior of individual on the collective level.

Information science is concerned with the use of information by human, and involves storing, processing and transmission by machine; the base for information science is therefore the experience in searching and using information. The desire for precise definition of that discipline relates to information theory, in which however the concept of information was never meant to express the meaning of the message. Yet, information science is precisely interested in the meaningfulness of information and its usefulness to the user. It is concerned with systems, human and/or machine, which are retrieving rather than just receiving information. Information theory focuses on 'receiving', information science on the 'searching system'.

"The recipient recognizes that there is something wrong with his state of knowledge concerning, say, some topic or situation, and wishes to resolve this anomaly . . . it concerns what the recipient does not know, rather than what he knows he needs to know." (p.185)

Incomplete knowledge is not an obstacle in communication but its cause; however, no communication is possible if there is no common knowledge shared by the communicants. This is of particular significance in hermeneutics.

Information science is an incomplete, anomalous state of knowledge ('ASK'). "The only essential difference between the ASK paradigm applied to information science and within information science is probably that in the latter case one system, e.g., the librarian's, has a tolerably precise definition of the topic available, although not immediately accessible, while in the former case no one knows more than the rest." (p.186)

HOLROYD, GILEON, 1972:

Sociology of knowledge is defined as a study of relations between thought and society. "From the standpoint of librarianship, much of our view of knowledge appears to be socially relative. Classification schemes for books may be devised in relation to the library's users and its stock . . . To evaluate library materials, we often use the informal or published opinions of others. Many of our value judgments can easily be traced to our perception of readers, and librarians, collectively." (p. 55) "It may be that one of the most valuable aspects of the sociology of knowledge lies in its challenges to accepted definitions . . . it may widen very considerably the accepted notions of what is knowledge, but it has to leave to philosophy the question of 'what is truth?'" (Ibid.)

HOLZNER, BURKART and JOHN. H. MARX, 1979:

Knowledge in contemporary society is analyzed in terms of the interpretations of realities by disciplines involved in "the production, organization, application and utilization of specialized, technical knowledge [that] has transformed social life by creating a post-modern, knowledge-based society.

(p. xvii)

Sociology of knowledge considers knowledge as a dependent variable associated with special interests, the approach in this book considers knowledge an independent variable affecting interrelationships between cultural symbol systems and individual cognitions.

Fritz Machlup interpreted knowledge in the context of economic environment, produced and accessible to different economic groups. George Gurvitch focused on the impact of social groups such as a city, on patterning, storage and retrieval of knowledge. The cultural processes discussed in this book are related to the systems for dissemination, distribution, storage retrieval, application and implementation closely intertwined with the knowledge production systems.

"Libraries represent basic knowledge availability systems that are far more than mere repositories for storing books. Changing library designs over the past hundred years has reflected and been closely associated with changing conceptions of the underlying rationality and order in knowledge . . . [the proliferation of new activities] have led to the emergence of new professions and disciplines whose main intellectual and practical responsibility is for management, storage, and retrieval of bodies of knowledge in a formal, rather than a substantive way. . . . Instead of the earlier predominance of a substantive focus on the classification and storing of relevant bodies of knowledge, these new disciplines domains, and techniques focus on structures of relevance, ways in which information can be traced within bodies of knowledge, and ways of charting the various channels of knowledge flow through social systems." (pp.235-6)

HOOKWAY, H.T. 1974:

Librarians should not be preoccupied with advance management considered as end in itself. They ought to be professionally and technically competent, sensitive to cultural changes in the society, performing educational functions, utilizing internationally available resources.

HORN, STEVEN, 1973:

The author opposes the notion that "the philosophy of librarianship must serve as a platform for action in ensuring the information utility network is free of any social ideological bias." (p.2216)

Since librarians probably will not be able to attain full control of the information utility, they should attempt at least to participate in the decisions concerning that utility. "Adoption of this role for librarianship, backed by research and by philosophical and empirical elaboration, would allow us to assert our participation in control of the information utility on our own merit. It would also allow us to assert a philosophy of service consonant with the social implications for our [value-oriented] activities." (Ibid.).

HOROWITZ, ROSARIO GASSOL DE, 1988:

This discussion of emerging librarianship in the Third World in terms of philosophy of librarianship, focuses on librarians' dilemma (preservation vs. dissemination), epistemological dualism (objective, positivistic and subjective humanistic definitions of knowledge), and Ortega y Gasset's doctrine of the point of view, stating that the definition of knowledge is relative, subject to different viewpoints, each complementing others.

The author identifies three approaches to philosophy of librarianship: (a) reductionistic, (Christ) (b) functional (Lancaster) and metaphysical (Kaplan, Shera, Nitecki and Wright).

Horowitz offered her own, tridimensional framework for the development of the needed theory, research and curriculum. She expanded Nitecki's, conceptual, contextual and procedural definitions of librarianship by considering library dimension in terms of human cognition (conceptual), related to its own culture (contextual) and performing information engineering function of interrelating library methodology with the technology of communication (functionalism).

Librarianship "has traditionally tended to parallel closely the prevailing communication technology but has been unable to develop strong theoretical foundations based on an understanding of human nature and human thought processes . . . development of such foundations constitutes the most urgent task confronting librarianship in the so-called Information Age." (p.121)

HOULE, CYRIL O., 1946:

Concerns about books, their dissemination or adult education must be based on the philosophical principles defining librarianship as a unique discipline. This can be based on John Dewey's pragmatical philosophy of education which "means the process of changing people's skills, knowledge, attitudes, and understanding so that they might be helped to formulate and achieve worthwhile social and personal goals." (p. 25)

This approach requires that a distinction be made between good and bad educational experiences. Good experiences must be continuous in an environment interacting with personal needs and purposes of an individual patron and the goals of the community served. However, these principles cannot be applied mechanically, but used "as means to broader understanding as well as improved practice." (p.47)

A traditional library can do without philosophy of education by using customs and established routines as guidelines. "Progressive librarians cannot rely upon established traditions and institutional habits, they must . . . be directed by ideas which, when they are made articulate and coherent, form a philosophy of education." (Ibid.)

---- 1946a:

The nature of philosophy of library service is practical, dealing with what should be, it is normative and not theoretical, descriptive.

Practical philosophy "achieves valid meaning only in terms of its operations." (p. 1514) Its objectives are educational, informational and aesthetic, based on research and providing recreation, adjusted to the multi-purposes of its parent organization.

These objectives include goals that are consciously aimed at, hierarchical in form, specific, discriminative, dynamic and providing a choice. "In the formulation of objectives . . . it is always necessary to move simultaneously in two directions. One is to formulate broad goals which seem to be desirable and to see how they may be achieved . . . The other is to examine present practices, choose which appear to be good, and then attempt to discover in terms of principle why they are effective. Also, one needs to examine the present desires of the borrowers . . . in order to see what kinds of things seem real and important to them." (pp.1600-1)

HOUSER LLOYD J., 1982:

Library science is a science without strong theory, failing to distinguish between hermeneutics philological clarification of texts that leads to the scholarship of humanities and knowledge produced by science.

"Library science educators part company with philosophy and prefer non-scholarly behavior in their efforts to settle doubts and fix belief. It is disturbing because there is, to date, no evidence in the history of scholarship, in the history of philosophy, or in the history of science, that authoritarian behavior is, in the long run, superior to knowledge . . . library science educators have chosen a lonely, difficult, and probably impossible goal for their enterprise." (p.105)

---- 1988

The essay discusses the nature of information science and its relation to librarianship by analyzing papers published in JASIS. The author concluded that information science is merely library science. There is no scientific community of information scientists and hence there is no information science as an independent discipline.

The author asks three questions concerning the domain: (1) are information science concepts unique to information science? (subject of the discipline)? (2) are the researchers in this field members of an older discipline? (scientific community); and (3) does the discipline focus on hypothesis testing? (scientific techniques).

Bibliometrics and its predecessor a statistical bibliography are not a traditional subject in librarianship. They were introduced by catalogers' investigation of literature growth in 1922; while the literature search belongs to any field of scholarship.

Computers were first installed in 1941, some 30 years before information science was formed. Hence the claim that information science is uniquely different from library science is not supported by empirical, philosophical, definitional, or sociological evidence.

HOUSER L. and ALVIN M. SCHRADER, 1978:

After reviewing a number of definitions of the field, the authors concluded that "there is no consensus among librarians and library science educators on what library science is. Some admit clerical operations in their definition of library science. Others emphasize the administration of libraries. Some say what it is not. Others compare it unfavorably with another field. None attempts to define library science as a specific study of a dynamic set of problems." (p.140)

Authors suggested as a solution a scientific-professional model, based on the following philosophical framework:

(1) "Every scientific field is defined by the problems which it identifies and chooses to study and solve." (2) Every field consists of such problems; (3) the problems are unique to that field; (4) solutions depend on defined methodologies, which can be tested and verified by others; (5) theory describes, explains and predicts the phenomena under study; (6) knowledge of the field is described in scientific publications; and transmitted to the students; (7) all are a functions of an intellectual and social climate. (pp. 155-6)

There are two essential conditions for a success of that model: (a) existence of needs for information in a society, and (b) consensus of the community about the problems related to information needs. The growth of information industry and interest of the government are important supportive conditions.

HOUSTON, GEORGE, 1989:

Ancient Romans image of librarians was quite different from the contemporary one. They saw librarians as arrogant, considering themselves superior to everyone else, well paid but also uncorruptible. They were envied for their good look and dress, but disliked for their pose. Yet librarians were more than any other profession eagerly and totally idolized.

HYNES, ARLEEN McCARTY, 1987:

'Biblio' as the root word for literature encompasses all media; therapy as a healing method is a result of an integrating values and action. Bibliotherapy stands for media used for growth and healing. (p. 167)

The goals of biblio/poetry are developmental in libraries, but in hospitals and prisons they are clinical. The interactive bibliography produces self-awareness in the readers different from one offered by private introspective reading, by involving the group reactions and bibliotherapist guidance. The process involves variety of creative therapies, such as art, drama, music, psychodrama and biblio/therapy.

"It is in the dialogue between the facilitator and the participant about the unique reaction to the literature/media that values can be recognized, clarified, and, through the emotional and cognitive involvement of commitment, be combined to bring about action that will make values live." (p.170)

HANSON, CARL, A., 1994:

The author discusses the role of John Cotton Dana in the period following the 1889 fundamental changes in librarianship, which created a background for information science. Among Dana's major contributions was his implementation of the ideas of direct access to the library collection and a utility-based collection development policy.

In that period public library struggled with the dilemma created by the theory of social uplift through high quality literature and users demand for popular reading material.

"By the early twentieth century many public libraries had abandoned the dogma of uplift and taken the role of mediators between a swelling tide of publications and voracious reading public." (p.187) The changing philosophy shifted public library self-definition from apostles of an ideology of culture to more accessible, and utility-driven library collections.

The author supports Danton's call for philosophy of librarianship, which resembles John Dewey's emphasis of the importance of theory in teachers' education. The two concepts suggest a need for integration of different tasks within, and between libraries, using a common denominator. That denominator, quoting Shaw (1926), is "to understand, to sympathize with, to urge on, to direct the thinking of, to transform and develop the ideas." (p.225)

Iben agrees with Danton (1934) that the most important advantage of professional philosophy will be "the establishment and recognition of the library as a vital creative, educative force for the advancement of civilization." (p. 225)

---- 1962:

In his review of de Vleeschauver's book (1961), Iben focuses on the "concept of the library as a cultural and humanistic element as opposed to a view of it as a purely utilitarian and mechanical device" (p.305)

Deontology differs from general ethics by its emphases on the specific listing of professional obligations. It focuses on the obligations of an individual librarian to adapt his actions to the objectives of the library he works in, creating a "symbioses of individual and institution," and an atmosphere of "complete tolerance and unobtrusive pursuit of the ideal or perfect impartiality" maintained by a library serving a pluralistic society. (p.308)

ILLICH, IVAN, 1978:

Illich maintains that the librarians are guardian of the books; all they can do is to create tools, making books more accessible to patrons but they should not mediate between them and their reader. He was disappointed with the Library of Congress automation system as not contributing to the expansion of human mind, pointing out that librarians, can at times be a part of the problem instead of the solution.

INGWERSEN, PETER, 1982:

The essay focuses on user interaction with library collection, user-librarian negotiating processes and librarians' search methodology in public libraries.

A possible correlation is suggested between (a) open search and symmetrical negotiations, where users provide librarians with additional information about their needs, and (b) asymmetrical negotiation and semi-fixed mode, with limited information about users' needs. If neither approach is successful, a librarian repeats the procedure that has already failed, by reexamining the search motive, routines and material used initially, reexamining search concept and its possibilities.

Important is the awareness of the consequences that follow selected search method in response to the patron's needs, that is converted into the information retrieval structure. The process can be better understood in terms of the cognitive theory of mental processes.

---- 1984:

The relationships between information retrieval (IR) and psychology is discussed in terms of the generation, acquisition and use of knowledge. Perception, information processing, thinking, representation, communication and categorization of knowledge are considered in IR processes as important problem-solving operations. "It is the human mind which has to come up with the flexible strategies, tactics and ideas that may suit the system" rather than the IR system itself. (p. 86-7)

Three approaches are of importance to information science:

(1) Cognitive view that "any processing of information . . . is mediated by a system of categories or concepts." (p.87) "Information is that knowledge - or conceptual context - which has to be perceived or produced by the mechanism - for example, by the mind of man." (Ibid.)

(2) Paradigm theories of IR provide a common knowledge structure.

(3) Popper's three worlds (physical, subjective and objective) are interactive. Only users and information specialists can retrieve the accessible knowledge (subjective W2), since knowledge cannot restructure itself (objective W3). IR provides physical or bibliographic access to documents (physical W1).

The author recognizes four stages in the development of IR methods: (a) monadic (each information unit is handled separately as self-contained entity), (b) structural (information is considered as a classified complex structure), (c) contextual (information disambiguates the message, e.g., natural language), and (d) cognitive or epistemic (information processing, as in knowledge representation)

There are two kinds of knowledge structure: episodic (private knowledge) and semantic memory (formal knowledge shared by others). In information science distinction is made between two knowledge structures: IR and conceptual. _Both are contained in episodic/semantic memory according to the experience of the individual." (p. 93)

---- 1991:

The framework of information science is discussed in terms of major areas of activities that include: (1) bibliometrics focusing on quantitative aspects of written communication; (2) information management that includes quality of text information system, (3) design of information retrieval system, and (4) information retrieval concentrating on information processes.

The author noted a general shift in research toward accessibility and use of stored knowledge, based on a holistic interpretation of information transfer. The trend is pronounced in the shift (a) from documents to information transformed into knowledge, (b) from technology alone to one related to human issues, and (c) from purely scientific interpretation of information concept to its broad definitions, considered in terms of accessibility and use of information.

INWAGEN, PETER von, 1984:

Future computers will be able to do only what present computers are doing, but faster with greater storage capacity, but none will be able to think.

Thinking is either a scientific or factual issue of programming certain functions (simulation); or a philosophical question of what is thinking. A computer running a letter-perfect program "would be simulating the presence of a thinking being. It wouldn't itself be thinking." (p.18)

Two arguments support the notion that computer can think: (1) Thinking is perceived through behavior. A completely paralyzed person who could type, would express his thoughts through typewritten messages - the typewriter becomes a vehicle of man's thoughts. (2) We think with brain, which is an information-processing device, independent of what the brain is made of or how it is organized. Computer running a letter-perfect program is also an information-processing device.

However, the two examples do not distinguish between thinking and its simulation. Perception cannot be explained on mechanical principles; "it is possible to create a perfect simulation of the presence of a thinking being . . . without creating a thing that really is thinking." (p. 21)

IRWIN, RAYMOND, 1949:

"This so-called philosophy of librarianship is . . . an elusive thing, as difficult to catch as any butterfly." (p.12)

The term 'philosophy' may applied to (a) philosophy proper (e.g., logic, metaphysics, or ethics), (b) its relations to other subjects intimately connected in principle (e.g., philosophy of science based on experimental and inductive knowledge, or philosophy of religion based on a priori reasoning), (c) knowledge in general (study of librarianship in general), and as (d) ruling principles (aims, objectives and ends of any branch of knowledge, including librarianship).

The last application of the term 'philosophy', "surveys the subject as a whole, studying its relations to associated subject as a whole, defining its special purpose and enumerating its starting point and general line of argument. This is not philosophy, but it is nevertheless a necessary approach to every subject; and we may fairly conclude that it is what our American colleagues mean when they speak of the philosophy of librarianship." (p.23)

Principles of librarianship refer to its aims and scope and its relations with other branches of knowledge:(1) with history: same material is preserved by librarians and interpreted by historians; (2) with science: collection of scientific materials such as periodicals or abstracts; (3) with social sciences consideration of readers as a group, as an abstraction used for statistical purposes; although essential is the service to an individual; (4) with education: provision of materials offering guidance and advice on individual bases; (5) with literature: a library provides historical bibliography and literary history;

(6) with ethics: importance of book selection (selecting books of value) and of access to collections; and (7) with psychology: librarians considered as the reader's other ego.

In conclusion, "the term 'philosophy of librarianship' has no meaning other than the study of the theory or principles of this branch of knowledge. Such a study must include (a) a definition of librarianship, (b) a statement of its purpose and aims and (c) a statement of its relations with other branches of knowledge." (pp.47-48) Irwin maintains that the essence of librarianship is the bibliography.

---- 1958:

The study of the history of librarianship is not popular partly because it requires a considerable amount of reading not directly related to practical necessity. This changing attitude toward the past, minimizes the dependence on tradition. "Never has so much seemed so out of date as it does today, whether it be in politics, or in science or in a small field such as library economy." (p. 510)

The study of history offers: (1) The ability to view the profession from the historical perspectives; "only those who have achieved this kind of detachment are qualified to talk about the philosophy of librarianship." (p.512) (2) A sense of proportion by considering each individual as a small part of the universe. (3) An intellectual sympathy for the accomplishments of the past and curiosity about the future, a sense of librarianship as a whole.

"To learn about one is to learn about the other, and in this common ground we meet with the origins of every science, every art and every philosophy that man has developed." (Ibid.)

---- 1960:

Being in love with books means being acquainted with masterpieces of literature. The person "who has an abundant curiosity about the world in general, and a special interest in one or two particular fields of knowledge . . . [is a person] whose work in a library is nearly always successful." (p. 315) Librarianship ought to be build on book knowledge, how it was produced, its physical appearance, contents and use.

---- 1961:

"There has of late been some discussion of the 'philosophy of librarianship'. This high-sounding phrase usually signifies little but the purpose of librarianship. In many cases the purpose of a given library is explicitly defined; this is true wherever the subject field and membership is restricted, as with the libraries of learned societies, and academic or scientific institutions. Consideration of purpose mainly arise where there are no such limitations, i.e., with non-specialized libraries open to the general public.

Broadly there are three possible purposes of a library: teaching, research, and entertainment; and these can be achieved either singly or in any combination by any library. In practice, however, the entertainment value of books is only stressed by the general library, and it is in this field that differences occur." (p.200)

IRVING, RICHARD D., 1988:

Public policy is defined as the "formation of policy by government institutions." (p.1) Information explosion increased the production of printed and non-printed raw data, accelerating the research and generating information.

The information can be interpreted either as (a) an economic commodity subject to the manipulation of a free market, or (b) as public good implying a free flow of information.

"The pervasiveness of government involvement in modern society has elevated in significance the public policy aspect of almost every social issue [and] librarians certainly have a vested interest in the relationship between public policy and information." (Ibid.)

ISAACSON, DAVID, 1982:

"The free, speculative, creative, and critical play of the mind is far too' heady' an atmosphere for many libraries."

(p. 228) The term 'elitist' is applied to the intellectuals accused of anti-democratic bias, male chauvinism, with judgmental, prejudices values.

However, the older definition of the intellectual elitist refers to "a person who is dedicated to discovering the best ideas, the most elegant solution to a problem, or the most precise answer to a question." (p.229)

Various connotations of the anti-intellectualism are seen in so labeling specialists dedicated to controversial issues, or to bookish persons. Intellectualism is rejected as a skill not necessary or even detrimental to library work, as demonstrated by a false dichotomy between theoretical foundations of librarianship and nonintellectual practice of working with books as tools, not as scholarly subjects.

Pseudo-intellectualism is illustrated by confusing source of information with knowledge, uses of pseudo-scientific jargon, making simple concept sound complex.

"The chief characteristic of an intellectual is the capacity to make discriminating judgments; the chief characteristic of an anti-intellectual is to 'discriminate' against that very capacity." (p. 232)

ISER, WOLFGANG, 1978:

Reading "sets in motion a whole chain of activities that depend both on the text and on the exercise of certain basic human faculties. Effects and responses are properties neither of the text nor of the reader; the text represents a potential effect that is realized in the reading process." (p.x)

Aesthetic response is "to be analyzed in terms of a dialectic relationship between text, reader, and their interaction. It is called aesthetic response because although it is brought about by the text, it brings into play the imaginative and perceptive faculties of the reader, in order to make him adjust and even differentiate his own focus." (Ibid.) "A theory of response has its roots in the text; a theory of reception arises from a history of readers' judgments." (Ibid.)

ISER, WOLFGANG, 1978:

Reading "sets in motion a whole chain of activities that depend both on the text and on the exercise of certain basic human faculties. Effects and responses are properties neither of the text nor of the reader; the text represents a potential effect that is realized in the reading process." (p. ix)

Aesthetic response is "analyzed in terms of a dialectic relationship between text, reader, and their interaction. It is called aesthetic response because it is brought about by the text, it brings into play the imaginative and perceptive faculties of the reader, in order to make him adjust and even differentiate his own focus ." (p.x) "A Theory of response has its roots in the text; a theory of reception arises from a history of readers' judgments." (Ibid.)

IVANOVA, J., 1992:

This is a philosophical review of the relationships between the object-property-process triad, with an emphasis on the denotative and organizational meaning of the term 'property'.

An interdisciplinary approach to information science is characterized by convergence of information science, communication, instructional technology and library science. All these disciplines are concerned basically with information handling and transfer.

The knowledge base for this new discipline is drawn from logic, mathematics, general systems theory, management science, philosophy, engineering, psychology, linguistics, library science, operations research, and computer science. The four main ingredients of information transfer are sender, message, medium and the receiver.

Communication science is the study of processes by which information is moved from one point to another through a common system of symbols, signs and behavior.

Library science is a study of the principles related to the generation, collection, organization and classification of information for storage and retrieval. Major responsibility is for dissemination of all forms of information to appropriate audiences.

Information science is a study of the characteristics of information and how it is transformed for consumption.

Instructional technology is the study and practical application of communication technology to meet educational needs in a society.

The common basic characteristics are: (1) information and communication need of users, (2) information and communication technologies, and (3) policy studies.

JACKSON, SIDNEY L., 1971:

This is a criticism of Gore's notion of skepticism. "To raise skepticism from a sound tool to a philosophy is to say that man's pursuit of truth is a waste of time. Defending all [material] in the name of abstract 'freedom' has been attractive to all of us [but] the abstract 'right' to have in a small library collection a sample of every known printed poison will come increasingly into conflict with what seems like common sense." (p.16)

JÄRVELIN, KALERVO and PERTTI VAKKARI, 1991:

A content analysis of research in library and information science indicates an even distribution between services, storage and retrieval (25% to 30% each). Among methodologies used, the empirical strategies were used approximately half of the times, with survey methods followed. "The most notable change from 1965 to 1985 was the loss of interest in methodology and the analysis of LIS and the change of interest in information storage and retrieval from classification and indexing (from 22 to 6%) to retrieval (from 4 to 13%)." (p.109)_