One of the most important developments in librarianship in the 1960s was the focus on research in librarianship. It falls into eight categories: (1) backgrounds, organization and administration, (2) technical processes, (3) resources, (4) personnel and training, (5) reader services, (6) international, (7) comparative and foreign, and (8) methods of research.

Background includes library philosophy, goals, history, books, publishing and the social aspects of librarianship.

The evaluation of the value of research in the field varied: P. Ennis considered it as a "noncumulative, fragmentary, generally weak and relentlessly oriented to immediate practice . . . others believed that basic research is what the profession needs most, and that preoccupation with immediate concerns will not yield solutions to long-range problems [and that dissertations] should be regarded not so much as contributions to knowledge, [but as] instruments for training in research methods." (pp. 355-356)

One objective of research in librarianship ought to be "better understanding of the theoretical foundations of library work and of the storage, organization, and communication of knowledge." (p. 359)

ECCLES, J.C., 1983:

We are born with the well-formed brain, and we learn gradually to use it through our first months of life, and by practicing language we related to the outside world. The language of babies at first is pragmatic: they ask for desirables (foot, comfort), with time they start using more specific language, (what is this for?) and through it finding their way into the world, and becoming cultured human being.

Popper's physical, real World 1 is the whole material world (the entire cosmos with all its matter and energy, including human brain). World 2 is the spiritual, conscious world of people's subjective experiences (all our thoughts, memories, ideas, imagining, creativity). World 3 is the world of civilized culture, of whole human creativity. There is an interaction between these worlds (we grow from World 1, through World 2 continuously, throughout our entire life into World 3).

People do not only act, but are also responsible for their activities; hence a materialistic explanation, limited to World 1 is not enough. Eccles proposes an alternative hypothesis of dualistic interaction (also known as psychophysical interactionism), a commonsense view that people are composed of two distinct and separate entities: (a) World 1 of physical realities, human brain and the body it controls, and (b) the nonmaterial World 2, the self-conscious mind, the psyche that constitutes the self. The self-conscious mind and the nonconscious brain interacts with each other in both directions as a flow of information but not as a flow of energy. Brain is an instrument, our personal computer.

EDELMAN, HENDRIK, 1976:

"With a smaller percentage of material available locally and less emphasis on creating bibliographic records, the burden of interpreting published knowledge is on the librarian." (p.56) This results in a "shift away from collection building in favor of sustained or improved direct user services . . . There will be an increased emphasis on the librarian as a deliver of information, rather than as a custodian of the knowledge storehouse." (Ibid.)

EDWARDS, RALPH, M., 1975:

The distinction is made between the function of librarian as a manager and as a professional. "Failure to clarify the differences between these two functions has hindered the development of a genuine profession of librarianship . . . [by] limiting conception of management, rooted only in bureaucratic models of library organization." (p.150) "What is called for is a broader vision of both the library profession and library management." (Ibid.)

The author argues for a position of library management specialists, librarians who "could proceed to meet their responsibilities, which is to develop and maintain the most effective organizational support for librarians who provide the professional services necessary for meeting society's informational needs." (p.160)

EGAN, MARGARET, 1955:

The library is considered as a social institution in transition, its development is determined by its social environment. Three types of library organization are discussed: (1) library organization emerging from the changing social structure, (2) librarians' professional organization, and (3) personnel organization within an individual library.

In late 19th and early 20th centuries social institutions were interpreted in terms of Spencerian view as a part of the total social organization, with a local community playing an important, independent cultural role. Changes in social institutions are compared to biological evolution, in which environment adapts to changing conditions. Librarianship must follow the same process of adaptation.

EGAN, MARGARET, E. and others, 1956:

Librarianship is concerned with an entire range of knowledge, it is a mediating service between subject and bibliographic knowledge, a form of intellectual engineering. Its theory ought to be developed within the discipline because a search for a theoretical foundation in other fields has resulted in narrowing the concepts of library functions.

There are many histories of particular libraries but no history of librarianship; there is a need for understanding what librarians have undertaken to do, in the context of changing needs of the society.

The function of the library is "to maximize the effective social utilization of the graphic records of civilization."

(p. 204) The library is a part of communication system, and any theory of librarianship must be related to that system. It provides an interrogative communication: the patron requests a given document, the librarian must find it. This is contrasted with the mass declarative communication, in which a communicator chooses the message and communicate it to the audience, whether the audience comprehends it or not.

EGGLETON, RICHARD, 1979:

Usually, conflicts in librarianship are between the innovators, committed to the profession rather than the institution, and the ritualists, focusing on the organization rather than on professional issues. Confrontation is considered to be the most productive solution because it brings up new approaches, while compromise may merely postpone the conflict.

Professional orientation stresses autonomy, service to the client and loyalty to the professional group; the bureaucratic approach focuses on adherence to organizational rules, regulations and procedures, services and loyalty to the organization.

EISENBERG, ALEX, 1982:

Information is accepted as the basis of all decisions and all new ideas; it should underline the work and philosophy of information professionals. The new philosophy must be created on a worldwide scale.

"In our field we ought to think in terms of knowledge transfer and information distribution on a large scale - and the vehicle for this process is electronic communication of information. The end-result is a global information system." (p.4)

EISENBERG, M.B., 1988:

The paper reviews the state-of-the-art of library and information science, by listing eighteen major trends, which can be grouped in three categories: (1) impact of computer technology on library operations and research, (2) increased interest in library management and (3) concern about library professional status, and education.

EISENSTEIN, ELIZABETH, L., 1968:

Social changes started with an invisible revolution in the late fifteenth century, created by the introduction of the printing machine, which changed the mode of production, communication and shift from scribal to typographical culture. The single text was replaced by edited first editions and their copies. The supply of books shifted from retail trade to a wholesale industry. The reading habit changed by distinguishing between learning from books and learning by reading, followed by increased learning by doing rather than by reading. The era of a glossary and comments was replaced by cross referencing between books, which created new combination among old concepts leading to the emergence of new ideas.

Production standards lead to new reference guides, with scholar-printer serving as an indexer-abridger-lexicographer-chronicler, with printers' workshop becoming the center of erudition in the sixteenth century. Editing, codifying and cataloging data followed, responding to the call for reader convenience. The preservation made possible an accumulation of fixed records with ideas leading to new knowledge. Increased access to books, augmented feedback from different sources, and consequently expanded cultural diffusion. But the most important impact of printing presses was the creation of new reading public. It changed from a silent and solitary, often unknown to each other individuals linked by books, to expanded interacting public. Novel reading increased empathy, humanitarian movements and sensitivity to a variety of tactile and sensory stimuli. (p.54-5)

The method of duplicating handwriting utilized five centuries ago changed, quoting Bacon "'the appearance and state of the whole world [bringing] the most radical transformation in the conditions of intellectual life'" (p. 56) "Typographical fixity is a basic prerequisite for the rapid advancement of learning." (p.17)

EKECRANTZ, JAN, 1987:

Definitions of information society claim either its reproductive, or revolutionary state. The static approach questions replacement of one theory of value (labor) by another (information). The revolutionary theory assumes that knowledge and information are the new types of resources.

Defining information society in terms of people dealing with information is not enough, because "it is possible to operate on knowledge, without possessing that knowledge in the cognitive sense." (p. 81) The quantification of production and circulation says nothing about the content of information value. The distinction between the creation and communication of knowledge is philosophically questionable; information that is not communicated does not raise the level of information society.

The sociology of knowledge concentrates on 'where' and 'when' of knowledge; mass media research focuses primarily on 'how', less on 'where' and very little on 'what'. The concept of information 'gap' (between haves and haves not) is descriptive, and focuses on quantitative differences at the expense of qualitative 'who knows what'. Information changed the concept of poverty, by replacing print illiteracy by computer illiteracy.

Neither communication revolution nor new information societies are the products of social revolutions: "the fundamental division of labor in society, and the social classes that constitute it, have always consisted of a social division of knowledge." (p. 86)

Information cannot be valued on its own, autonomously without specific reference to the relevant information environment; it often includes noninformation, misinformation, disinformation, or cognitive distortion. "The personal value of a particular resource is often derived from its relative absence." (p.88) "The important thing is not to know much, but more." (Ibid.)

Regis Debray's 'medialogy' (a) points out to "the inverse ration between the informational value of a message and its communicability"; (b) it states that "the economy of reason makes reason anti-economic", [while] "the mass media ensure the socialization of private stupidity," and (c) "the accuracy of information becomes more and more improbable as the sphere informed is extended." (p.89) The concept of media becomes more important than their content.

The knowledge considered as economic resources, conductivity to power, economic power or as the result of concentrated power, is either an attribute of power or it implies it.

The traditional reformists philosophy of colonialism assumes a flow of information from informed elite to less informed general public, thus increasing its resources. In reality, however, the diffusion of knowledge does not lead to knowledge-power but rather to polarization between social groups, creating the instrumental power over people. Power relationship is a relative term applying to knowledge as well as to its communication, accumulation and displacement of records.

ELLIS, DAVID, 1984:

Research in information retrieval should be refocused from the information retrieval system itself to the user's interaction with information sources.

Relating information retrieval research too closely to physical science, technology and engineering models results in the use of relevance as a performance criterion by substituting "a measurable phenomenon, relevance judgment as employed in laboratory test, for an unmeasurable one." (p. 29) In real life, the focus is on determination of significance of relationships between the laboratory tests and the performance of operational systems, with information retrieval models unable to explain why or how individuals seek information, asserting that "there is a necessary inverse relationship between precision and recall

. . . [confused with] a necessary inverse relationship between the ability to determine precision and recall accurately." (p. 33)

The author concludes that "information retrieval research has more to learn from user studies and from . . . research in the field of artificial intelligence than from aeronautics or high-energy physics." (p.36) "Information retrieval systems ought to be designed around the concept of exploratory capability." (Ibid.)

ELMAN, STANLEY A., 1976:

Humanization of library environment is proposed at the pragmatic, working level. Information science is interdisciplinary sharing with other disciplines information, its generation, transformation, communication, storage, retrieval and use, both on the mechanistic and humanistic levels. Humanization of information science (a) relates to assisting users in defining their information needs, (b) not confusing computers, book collections and buildings with libraries and their functions to provide needed services to the community.

The computer technology is a historical accident rather than a scientific organizing principle. There is a need for more attention paid to social, cultural and spiritual aspects of communication. Library effectiveness is not synonymous with efficient library collection management.

The applications of statistical, mathematical, sociological and computerized methods of research are important contributions of system analysts, but only if not exaggerated.

The main goal of information science and librarianship is to bring together the information seeker and the information sought, by relating the two approaches closer to humanistic concern.

EMERY, RICHARD, 1971:

On an elementary level philosophy is a theory of a subject matter taken as a whole, with principles binding together concepts such as meaning, value and/or function.

"Librarianship, with its more limited areas of activity, conception and its study, is better viewed in terms of theory or theoretical principles than philosophy." (p. 20) Librarians perform secondary tasks, relating more to the communication of knowledge than to its creation or application.

"The fact that a basic philosophy cannot exist for a secondary activity such as librarianship has meant that many writers, supposedly discussing the philosophy of librarianship, have in fact been directing their attention to purpose [Broadfield], sets of professional ideals or guides for conduct [Foskett], or function [Nitecki]." [p. 22) The same criticism can be also extended to McClellan's purposes and obligations, Ranganathan combining purpose and function, or Benge's dilemma 'for what purpose'.

The author feels that other statements are also of little help, e.g. J.D.Cowley's dictum, repeated by Foskett, 'no politics, no religion, no morals' or Butler's call for helping individual in his search for information. All such statements indicate limits of library service but no solution to library problems such as censorship.

"Function explains purposeful action, that is function is usually thought of in terms of activity by which purposes are fulfilled." (p.24) Library functions are means toward the ends of library purposes (collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of library materials), that is, library functions are related directly to library purposes. Thus a combined theoretical and empirical approach to librarianship and its problems rather than to the library philosophy, purposes and function, simplifies the formulation of library goals and the description of its realistic functional activities.

ENGLE, MICHAEL, O., 1986:

"The values inherent in a conscious philosophy provide direction for the actions and decisions of daily work and the formulation of long-term goals and objectives." (p.30) "A basic philosophical principle is that raising of serious questions is exceedingly important, even if no answers are forthcoming." (Ibid.)

The author argues for a sound conceptual theoretical and philosophical framework for bibliographic instruction, citing Shera and M. Buckland essays as examples of writers in philosophy of librarianship.

"The growth of bibliographic instruction has led us to examine anew the role of the metaphysical and metaphorical in librarianship." (p.31) "McInnis uses the idea of H.Curtis Wright to outline the metaphysical nature of librarianship

. . . Nitecki has proposed that librarianship is essentially metaphysical. McInnis and Nitecki both suggest using metaphors to teach and to understand the metaphysical nature of librarianship and the artifacts of our complex, incomplete, and sometimes frustrating bibliographic apparatus."(Ibid.) "The kinds of relationships the ideas and information in a given book bear to the contents of the rest of the subject literature are governed in part by the cognitive authority accorded them . . . something that can be characterized metaphorically, although it is grounded in the physical." (Ibid.)

"The second factor of philosophical significance is the need to integrate the values of a liberal education into the practice of the library in the liberal arts college." (Ibid.) "An enduring concern for the meaning of life and work is one of the marks of the liberally educated person. A willingness to examine and periodically reexamine our philosophy keeps us in touch with the experiences of the students and faculty with whom we work

. . . understanding the social context is crucial to understanding our work." (Ibid.)

The author discusses 'librarian as tolerator of ambiguity', and as 'intervenor', noting that "cultivating contemplation, speculation, the life of the intellect, and careful observation provides a needed framework for activism." ( p.32)

ENNIS, PHILIP, H., 1962:

The imbalance between the scientific and technological explosion creates a complex social network of communication, resulting in the emergence of two extreme kinds of malfunctioning responses: (a) the Luddite violent reaction to the technological changes, and (b) technocratic enthusiastic endorsement of innovations.

The library problem is further augmented by the nature of serving two kinds of patrons, the subject readers and its own organization, calling for revolutionary response to changes and conservative administrative attitude.

The author argues for flexibility in meeting technological changes, by (a) redefining the boundaries of the field, (b) changing the old image by changing the name, (c) redefining the mission, (d) establishing a new institutional role, and (e) changing recruitment and education of newcomers to the profession. The professional status and control ought to be based on functional operations rather than technological innovations.

"There is a strength of being forewarned, for it will be recalled that the Luddities were all hanged. The technocrats suffered a worse fate; they were soon forgotten." (p. 198).

---- 1964:

The major issue of the American public library is the problem of reaching potential clients that are geographically dispersed. The initial goal of public library was the provision of educational services to all, with information service and recreational reading considered secondary. This mirrored American democratic tradition of counteracting special privileges and a cultural imperialism of the progressive era that everyone should be made better by reading. With the significantly improved environment, these goals become less relevant, resulting in a double failure of either receiving insufficient allocation for maintaining major goals, or retreating from the goals themselves. The public library becomes almost socially invisible.

"It seems imperative that public libraries reexamine their multipurpose situation and set clear priorities on their objectives." (p.178) "The alternative is to drift with the accidental pressures of demands and to move rudderless with the tide of fluctuating and residual public interest." (Ibid.)

ESDAILE, ARUNDELL, 1933:

Modern period in the history of the library began at the end of the 15th century following Renaissance focus on historical and vernacular literature. Reformation's neglect of literature resulted in scattering library material among monasteries. These changes prompted a call for the establishment of libraries responsible for the preservation of books that would give the society a sense of oneness. Eventually the concept of 'a museum library' was replaced by 'a laboratory library', and by improved access through adaptation of innovations.

Esdale was the first to use the term 'social responsibility' defined in terms of major library functions to preserve, and facilitate the use of collection by adaptation of new technology and by 'propagation of knowledge by fission', allowing for a growth by specialization and branching.

As official selectors who determine what can be acquired, librarians face 'the selection-censorship muddle', created by the paradox of confusing freedom to read, intellectual freedom and freedom of thoughts with quality selection of library material.

John Stuart Mill defense of freedom of thoughts is based on (1) consciousness of thoughts, feelings and a freedom to express and publish opinions, (2) liberty of taste and pursuits. He argued for a 'permanent floating soapbox, 'a traveling free marketplace of ideas', but he did not identify the guardian of these rights.

The freedom to read is based on Mill's concept of individual freedom, while the selection policy relates to library function. The two are unrelated. Librarians can serve as society's soapbox, its official guarantor of a free marketplace of ideas, but they do not know which reading is 'good' for the patrons.

Soapbox function is legitimate library function, but must be disentangling from 'intellectual freedom' concept. It is limited by available resources; the selection of material is, in addition, determined by the educational and cultural goals of the library.

--- 1978:

In 1850s both public schools and libraries were products of movement for social reform, considered as gateways to moral and social progress. Post-Civil War social changes created by urbanization, industrialization and immigration, were addressed by a new middle-class urban professionals who, searching for solutions to social problems in new social theories, developed a new set of values based on 'bureaucratic orientation'. The mission of the common school was the formation of students character.

The public library was firmly linked with common school by continuing where the school left off and by offering opportunities for 'self-education'. Both were supported by the same constituencies which provided tax support for the same purpose, with public library providing services to adult education only (children under age 12 or 14 were not allowed in the library).

Toward the end of 19th c. pressure increased for the public library to supplement school education, by providing textbooks and by abolishing age restriction. In 1896, on Dewey recommendation rooms for children were introduced in schools, and children librarians emerged as a new specialization introducing children to beauty, idealism and away from trash literature. The combination of this romanticism of early child education lead to the kindergarten and children library service movement, with socialization's overall goal to bring rural virtues to city tots.

School libraries were not needed in the 19th century schools because they were characterized by mechanical drill. The school reform, which started in 1892 changed the school from an 'oppressive factory to progressive institution', with school libraries incorporated into school programs (at least in theory, to support new educational philosophy concentrating on problem lesson, laboratory methods, supervised study etc.

Secondary schools shifted from academic preparatory school to comprehensive institutions, motivated by growth of technology, economic advancement and increase in urban population.

In 1956 American Association of School Librarians fully endorsed the concept of the school library as an instructional material center for new media, changing its mission from exclusively culture-repository of books (teaching children to read books) to curriculum and instruction (supporting the school curriculum). The discrepancy between the idea of a school library and the reality of its marginal role in school educational activities created disappointment and criticism.

The criticism focused on a disparity between noble public statements and not so noble private beliefs. In addition, the passage of compulsory education legislation differentiated between public and school libraries, forcing the public library to abandon its 19th century educational mission, and to focus instead on an audience outside school.

FAIRTHORNE, R.A., 1961:

This is a collection of 16 papers on recovery of records by their subjects [sc. information retrieval], which involves conceptual classification, mechanical marking and parking operations.

It surveyed the boundaries of retrieval considered as a social process, based on a system and user-oriented approach (what is needed vs. what is possible). It is a mathematical and engineering viewpoint applied to library science and it involves lattice algebra, Brouwerian logic and generality functions.

"For some millennia librarians have had to deal with texts as carriers of concepts, and with texts as heavy objects with marks on. They have evolved efficient techniques and principles to cope with these aspects severally, rarely have they discussed texts in both capacities at once." (p.ix)

Delegation of tasks to the machine depends on the amount of detail and instruction available for the machine. Mathematics and machine can answer questions but cannot ask them. Efficient coding in library classification links the most frequently required title with the least expensive operations.

In communication, semantics is needed only at the beginning of the process to define the terms. It is concerned with synonyms within a given field of recorded knowledge as it applies to books; the concepts such as ethics, or truths are irrelevant. In electronic communication 'meaning' is conveyed by the rules of use.

The principles of communication theory include: (1) numerical relations between physical processes and what one wants to say, (2) statistical relations between information and the action of transmitting it, measured in terms of reduction of uncertainty (probability). The ordinary meaning of information involves the content of the symbol and the reaction of the user and (3) noise (uncontrolled events) is combated by repetition.

Well written paper, similarly to a good invention, anticipates new papers; papers once written are either deducible from their predecessors, and hence not original, or they are incorrect.

This book "does not solve problems, but it does indicate how to solve them by displaying their interconnections. All documentary theory eventually stands or falls on how well it corresponds with documentary facts. The function of a mathematician is to make keys. It is up to the documentalists to provide the correct lock." (p.185)

---- 1967:

'Information flow' may be metaphorical, it may refer to the storage of physical documents or transmission of signals. It is necessary to state the conditions under which one uses the term.

Within the field of 'notification' (i.e., mentions and delivery of recorded messages to users) there are twenty basic activities formed by choosing traits from the six variables: Message-Code-Channel-Source-Destination-Designation.

'Flow' has meaning only when two such triads have two variables in common and form a tetrad. The flow or correspondence between any pair of variables is inextricable from a conjugate flow or correspondence between various pairs. Between any pair of endpoints there are six possible distinct types of flow, according to which two of the remaining four variables are directly used to achieve that flow.

Amount of information measures not a 'stuff' but relations. Shannon considered only the most essential aspects of communication, the design of patterns of signals; it involves informing in the sense of telling or signaling, in the most simple form. The recipient is told which message has been chosen, not what the message is or what it refers to. Shannon's model is necessary but not sufficient.

A 'code' is a symbol system indicating choices made from a set of messages and are represented by signals or inscriptions. The message is an agreed finite set of identifiable entities. The sources are within the environment (publishers, distributors, etc.). Destinations are individuals who are to be told. Notification is the task of alleviating the situation where the reader has to receive the message indirectly through a document; it includes a source (author), designation (topic of interest), code (script, language) and a channel (physical access). Marking and parking are defined by the channel (site), destination (reader), code and message.

Librarians are not the authors, printers or telegraphists; they only deliver messages, and are concerned with the subjects of discourse, how they are written about, who writes about them, and how often they are asked for in what terms and by whom.

---- 1968:

Information retrieval is an essential step in all library services, it does not use records but only mention them. Its scope is limited by recorded discourse and technologies such as printing. Its value is in an efficiency of providing needed material. It deals with both linguistic and physical matters, i.e., it is what the people say it is (social), and it is what it is (physical). Coordinated indexing system is affected by a confusion between names, words and concepts used in the retrieval.

Every discipline has three aspects: utilitarian, aesthetic and philosophical. The practical value of any theory is in offering solution to a problem by application of general principles, and by identifying and stratifying functions.

The term, 'information retrieval' was coined by Calvin Mooers in 1949, as a service that is initiated by the reader not by the source of the message. Other term used is 'message delivery'. It is a tool of recorded discourse, but it does not take part in the discourse itself.

It is futile to asses retrieval system by 'user satisfaction.' Usefulness depends not upon retrieval system, but on the existence of the document to be retrieved. The retrieval system must be judged only by how well it supplies reader with what kind of document the reader prescribes, and only with respect to the documents that are accessible.

It is important to avoid confusing 'what is spoken about' with 'how it is spoken about', for example: (1) 'A gives B information: i.e., self subsistent substance 'information' that can be retrieved. It is accepted as a metaphor but not as an expression of reality. (2) 'A informs B about C': i.e., B's knowledge about C is changed by what A has written. This depends on many factors outside librarians control (e.g., B's personal history). (3) 'A tells B about C': i.e., this is the only level on which librarian can work. He can help B to find out what A say about C. Librarians "can make it easier for B to find out what A, and others, have to tell about C. This is big enough aim to keep librarians busy indefinitely . . . it is also an aim worthy enough to be called a profession in its own right." (p.369)

---- 1968a:

In comparing his system with Nitecki's, Fairthorne criticizes Nitecki's concentration on one triad only (generic book-its content- and user), thus confounding under BOOK Fairthorne's MESSAGE, CODE and CHANNEL, and ignoring the element SOURCE. Fairthorne argues that Nitecki's triad is a confluent case of his own triad. He also objects to Nitecki's interpretation of knowledge as a subject of study in library science in opposition to Fairthorne's own insistence that the discipline should focus not on knowledge but on a discourse, by distinguishing between being informed 'by' vs. 'about' the document.

Nitecki replied (1968a) that both theories, Fairthorne's and his own, use the same strategy by describing two basically different phenomena. Fairthorne's 'signaling' is a Shannon's term, while Nitecki stresses the meaning expressed by relations between carrier, content and the reader of the book.

They differ in consideration of knowledge: Nitecki sees KNOWLEDGE as the content of a book, its subject, of interest to library science, while Fairthorne advocates a DISCOURSE. This is a distinction in a focus of a theory: being informed about the document (librarians' task) or by a document (author and reader's task).

"By comparing both papers, the reader may or may not detect the 'confluency' of the hypotheses in the two papers; but he should notice the absence of a confocal character within them. In each of the papers, the nature of librarianship is examined through lenses of different focal lengths." (Nitecki, 1968a, p. 373)

---- 1968b:

The author criticizes Borko's essay for a lack of conceptual foundations, by stressing the importance of distinguishing between use and mention of records and "the systematization of what you are doing, even if you do not know exactly what you are doing, or why you are doing it." (p.89)

Machines deal with marks manipulated according to given rules, they do not deal with numbers but with numerals. Facts are linguistic expressions that conform to a strict format; factual statements are not always about facts.

Information science is a sub-sub-sub system of sociology; how people write, use and ask for documents and by informing them about available records. The only way we can appreciate a concept is by discussing a topic in its own right, not in terms of its application.

Diagrams are most misleading in information science because most linguistic expressions are not binary, yet the line in a diagram has only two ends.

---- 1969:

- "Records are representations of what has been said by someone to be said to someone else, or about which someone may request to be told." (p.25) Records are produced, manipulated and applied in a wide range from logico-philosophical to the physical; all of them involve social environment (they are not spontaneous), all depend on language and human judgment but exclude private processes in an individual brain. Because of the subjective aspect of the individual's involvement in communication and social context, an analogy of brain to a computer is misleading.

Documentation science studies discourse as such, and as it is - not as a topic of discourse or its verification. Computing science is concerned with symbol manipulation, not with what the symbols may stand for. Documentation deals with semantics and pragmatics, computation with syntactics and pragmatics, while communication makes use of each other techniques. In document retrieval process there is no meaningful analogy between social use of a library, computer access to information and brain. Information science is not focusing on the application of the tools, such as computer or document, but on the principles and purposes of these applications.

---- 1973:

The author discusses the ignorance of the computer: it can differentiate but not quite recognize or match items unless specifically instructed; it can hardly identify or put a name to the data, as contrasted with human ability to identify, recognize and differentiate between data.

Librarians deal with 'aboutness', listing things that are mentioned in the document, they do not address the truth or consistency of documents; they help people to find out what someone has to say, but not what was said. 'Aboutness' entails knowledge of what is going to be used by what class of readers. The librarian must be knowledgeable about the discourse, not what the discourse is about. The patron's satisfaction does not depend on truth or consistency, but on his preference. Intentional aboutness appropriate to a given class of readers is determined by their ignorance about the subject of inquiry.

---- 1985:

L.R.Morris's historical references to Babbage's 'desk calculator' is incorrect. Numerical calculating machines are older than Babbage invention. In 1830 'desk calculators' were already in use. Babbage constructed in 1830 a 'difference machine' and set the principles for his 'analytical engine'. This was more than just a calculating machine, and is now considered to be a prototype of a computer. Bush's 'differential analyzer' was a multiple integraph for the graphical solution of ordinary differential equations. Number of analog devices were already known in the mid-nineteen century (mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, etc.); and the logarithmic slide rule has been used since the end of the eighteen century.

FAISON, GEORGIA H., 1961:

"Perhaps a reference librarian's forte lay in the organizational framework of a subject field; in a grasp of the salient characteristics of many areas rather than in the richness and depth of the contents of any; in a biographic-procedural-transfer-pattern, as it were, that would cover roughly all fields; in taking a fact from one setting and in transplanting it indigenously in another; in thinking of an isolated event or movement in the broadest involvement possible." (p.291) It is important that a rapport between the reference librarian and the patron exists with the channels of communication open.

FANO, R.M.., 1956:

Information theory provides a basic understanding of communication processes and of the efficient and reliable encoding and decoding of messages in their transmission.

The problem facing the information scientist "might not be so much that of mechanizing libraries as that of mechanizing the librarians that run them, and that the machines that would have to do the routine part of the work of the librarian must be told exactly what to do in their own precise language because they do not understand English and . . . have no common sense." (p. 244)

FARMER, JILL ANNE, 1993:

The poststructuralism is a form of cultural criticism, opposing epistemology of positivism by questioning sociology of knowledge in librarianship. 'Text' refers to the relationship between the reader, the cultural environment and the text's meaning imposed by a variety of factors. "There is no objective reality; rather, reality is socially constructed." (p.393) The "formation of conceptions is a function of one's socioeconomic background, methodological preferences, or personal experience . . . [and] the sex of the knower is epistemologically significant." (p.393)

A distinction is made between two perspectives: (a) of the poststructuralist Communication Studies, continually creating meaning by interactants, and (b) of Information/Library Studies focusing on the outcome resulting from the managed information transfer. A poststructural focus in librarianship should be on the way information is selectively interpreted, encouraging analyzes of information from non-conventional perspectives in the context of societal values and epistemological criticism. "As information professionals, we owe it to society to ensure that economic and cultural dominance does not distort information access and interpretation." (p.404)

FARRADANE J., 1980:

Information science is a cognitive science, dealing with thought processes as a part of communication, teaching and learning. "More we study the two cognitive ends . . . the cognitive processes which produce information, and the cognitive processes which occur on the receipt of information, the more we may be able to improve and control the processes of information storage and retrieval to attain desired results." (p. 75)

Thought is not derived from language; language is learned by a process of associating percepts into concepts through thought processes, with mind translating thoughts into language.

Knowledge is defined "as a structured (interrelated) set of concepts in the brain. Thinking is then any stage of these processes; a 'thought' is perhaps what is retrieved . . . from long-term memory." (p. 77)

---- 1981:

Defines 'information' as writing or speech used for communication of knowledge. It is equivalent or a surrogate of the knowledge to be communicated. More generally, information is human interpretation of experienced phenomena. It is neutral, providing a reference point to the comparison with the originator's knowledge and intentions.

Data are 'given' not necessarily as 'raw facts'. The 'sense data' are the effects of postulated external influences, the 'percepts' temporarily stored in short-memory.

Brain re-sorts and classifies percepts into long-term memory as concepts, which can be recalled, re-ordered or manipulated for various purposes. The totality of these concepts and the interrelationships between them is knowledge; its manipulation is called 'thought'.

Reality is a construct, created from sense data and concepts and it is accepted by consensus. Knowledge is not necessarily true at any given moment, it relates to the truth in terms of the degree of its disapprovability. Language is a system of symbols learned by association with percepts.

The author suggests a standardized definition of information as a language vehicle of communication.

FAYEN, EMILY GALLUP, 1986:

Library service is directional, it points to the sources but does not provide answers without judging the value of the sources. Neutrality is justified in an academic environment in which students are thought how to evaluate the information themselves.

But "if librarians want to hold positions of authority . . . [they] must be prepared to take on the responsibility of providing real information and vouching for its correctness." (p. 241)

FEDANZO, A.J., 1986:

The author discusses functional equivalence between biotic and organizational systems that can be described as Darwinian evolution. Organizational genetics describes the functional equivalence between organizational data model and organic, genetic material. It is (a) based on Darwinian evolutionary theory, (b) it offers a synthetic view of human activities and change-making forces, (c) which are based on a sufficient biological knowledge, and (d) it allows for prediction of consequences resulting from modern technology.

"Computerized data management has led to the existence of an actual, concrete functional equivalent of the species' genetic pool. This equivalence resides in the organizational data model; an information laden structure that contains the form, content, and basic procedural rules for routine data handling and processing in an organization." (p.21)

It is presumed 'that information is a satisfactory substratum upon which to base a single unified view of evolution acting in its biological and newly extant organizational contexts ." (p.22) "The genetic material in organisms is functionally equivalent to the content of data model . . . both are essentially information structures that actively direct both the ontogenesis and many behaviors in their respective systems." (Ibid.) "Darwinian selection operates upon these organizations with the requisite information equivalent to genetic material." (Ibid.)

Darwinian selection is a creative process (positive feedback) supporting or suppressing (negative feedback) process in random selection.

The role of the genetic material is to (1) define the developmental process, (2) control the behavior of the organism, (3) provide information needed to preserve continuity between generations, and (4) provide causal basis for variability in environmental selection. Similarly, data model (1) defines in detail organizational functions, (2) controls the content and timing of many functions, (3) contain necessary information for replication of the basic organizational structure and (4) it is the only information that describes the organizational history and operations of the organization.

FEDERAL LIBRARY COMMITTEE, 1978:

The committee discussed the new role of a federal librarian in the context of the increased share of data-based information storage, retrieval and reduced importance of retaining printed material. The aim was to reduce the mass of paperwork by making information processes faster, smaller and simpler by mechanizing, simplifying and streamlining information production.

Information is viewed as a value-laden commodity; the new role of a librarian as an information manager is to advise the administration about the information content and purpose in specific programs, by asking 'an educated why'? ' about information needs in planning, operating, managing and evaluating programs. The focus ought to be on information services rather than management of information resources.

FERGUSON, MILTON, J., 1938:

Education is an individual process; instruction comes through interest and entertainment. Libraries supplement other educational agencies but they lack sufficient financial support, caused in part by uneven distribution of wealth.

Librarians must guard the right of free speech against censorship. "We should fear to speak, not because our liberty is at stake, but only because our reasoning is weak." (p. 627)

FESENMAIER, STEPHEN L., 1988:

The author criticizes Allan Bloom's thesis that the current mass culture and anti-intellectualism are blamed on German philosophers and hippies. The author links this view with 2,500 years of Platonic totalitarianism and fear of change. To him "Bloom is America's 10th rate Heidegger."(p. 9)

FINE, SARA, 1984:

Human behavior is an essential aspect of librarianship. Behavioral perspectives relate to the 'soft side' of librarianship, the way librarians think, feel and behave, their interaction with the patrons and the processes of motivating, resolving grievances and creating harmony in library environment.

FINK, DONALD G., 1976:

The principal and technical problem of information science is to know if the knowledge about desired information exists and can be available by retrieval from a mass of unavailable information such as trade secrets.

The new technology will add to the previous common sense and empiricism the new methods in abstracting, use of models, simulation, decision theory and systems analysis.

FINKS, LEE W., 1989:

"Values represent a level in our belief system that is deeper and more substantial than mere attitudes, or hunches, or opinions - a level that is less influenced by time and circumstances, one that is more concerned with ends than with means." (p.352)

The author divides all values into four categories: (1) professional, 2) general, (3) personal and (4) rival.

Professional values include (a) service-oriented commitment to truth-seeking, intellectual freedom and responsibility. (b) Philosophical values reflect traditional love of wisdom, and search for truth, maintaining neutrality in ideological controversies and resisting censorship. (c) Democratic values reflect the culture in which the library exists (e.g., in USA political freedom, informed citizens, universal education, literacy and opportunities for self-development). (d) Commitment to reading and books.

General values shared by many people include: (a) social values of cooperation, competence, tolerance, sense of duty appreciation of needs for security, acceptance and self-respect, and (b) work values of competence, freedom to chose our own work and commitment to excellence,

Personal values, idiosyncratic to librarians as a group, consist of: (a) humanistic values of respect to other individuals, (b) idealistic values of ideal reference, cataloging, and collections, belief in honesty, justice, and truth, (c) conservative values to save, preserve and protect, orderliness and control, (d) aesthetic appreciation of beauty, harmony, originality and good taste

Rival values include: (a) bureaucratic values of pettiness, and rigidity, (b) anti-intellectual values of mediocrity and trivialization of learning and discourse, and (c) nihilistic values of cynicism and disbelief.

FLETCHER, HOMER L., 1968:

In a letter to the editor, the author criticizes Shera's view on intellectual freedom, by arguing that there will never be a determination of what effects, good or bad, reading may have on an individual reader. He objects to the notion "that should a book be proved inimical to the welfare of the body politics it should be censored."(p.565) "Such statements only serve to confuse librarians and allow them sanctuary to deny their obligations to face any and all ideas without cringing." (Ibid.)

FLETCHER, JANET, 1983:

The politics and philosophy of collection development changed form 1950s idealism and 1960s activism into skepticism about the government role, creating tensions between patron needs, wants and a library mission. This change affected the perception of the quality of collection, and increased demands for preferential treatment, by expecting librarians to be involved in public relations, to update their own skills and to teach patrons to become effective information users.

"Perhaps the most challenging role for librarians in the future, according to Haas, will be in teaching the citizen to become 'a successful user of recorded information.'" (p. 882)

FLETCHER, WILLIAM I. , 1894:

"One of the highest aims for a public library may be to divert the recreative reading of the community into better channels, to replace trash with light literature . . . and so gradually elevate the ideals and sentiments of the people." (p.32) "Library directors [are] required, to accept and exercise full responsibility for the moral character and influence of the library." (Ibid.)

FOGL, JIRI, 1979:

Information (means for social communication) and knowledge (cognition of properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality) are considered as a social and scientific discipline.

Information can be studied in terms of its semantic, pragmatic aspects or as a method of fixing knowledge and value judgment.

"The content of information thus stems from cognitive and evaluative activity, not from the process of creating information . . . [as] the linguistic recording of the contents of consciousness, that is when the cognitive and evaluative processes during the creation of information are still continuing or in the process of ending." (p. 22)

Information is an independent value, by itself a specific object of reality. Knowledge is contained in information, old information dies out when new knowledge emerges. This interdependence is formulated in the "law of constant functional interdependence between the development of the contents of knowledge and items of information." (p. 23)

Professional information (scientific, technical economic and political) is created by a society; scientific knowledge becomes a component of Marxist-Leninist ideology through professional information, influencing social groups, individual aims and directions in the use of cognitive activities.

FORD, NAGEL, 1979:

The author suggests a conceptual model that unites 'libraries' and 'learning', "in order to facilitate the application, and generation of research of relevance to the two areas. The concepts of 'independence' and 'structure' are suggested as possibly central components of such a model." (p.25)

The 'independence' factor relates to the different intellectual activities; the 'structure' to different levels of students preference and more effective learning.

The learning model consists of: 'like holist' comprehension learning, 'like serialist' operation learning and 'versatile learning of adopting either of the other two approaches appropriate for a given subject of study. 'Syllabus-bound' learning is based on organized, instructed approach, and 'syllabus-free', less structured style of learning.

A possible model of 'library learning' ought to reflect the above factors, by "1. the provision of ideas and information prestructured in . . . different ways; 2. access to a variety of frames of reference and perspectives in a given subject area or topic; 3. environment for students' structuring of their own approach to new ideas and information . . . and 4. students' perception of, and development of certain types and levels of independence from tutors." (p.30)

---- 1980:

"'Information needs' are defined in terms of conceptual incongruities, the parameters of which are described by a number of constructs originating in the fields of cognitive and social psychology. The 'satisfaction' of such needs are discussed in terms of access to varying ranges of information sources, from individual learning resources to large-scale data bases, which may contain information appropriate to the resolving of such conceptual incongruities." (p.99) "Generally, the wider the range of information that an individual has access to, (i) the more restricted to the names of 'topics' and 'subjects' have been the parameters of information needs catered for by the system; and (ii) the less the individual has been able to know about the suitability of the sources to other parameters of his information needs, as proposed, at the time of searching." (Ibid.)

'Information' is defined as intentionally transmitted communication; information science focuses on developing systems "which will allow the learner to select information from a relatively wider range of sources, but in response to a narrower range of learner characteristics - in particular to 'information needs' largely restricted to topics and subjects headings." (p. 104)

---- 1984:

The author describes intellectual development in terms of different aspects of knowledge as: (1) static, authority based, (2) actively changing and developing, (3) arbitrary, (4) combinations of relevant concepts, and (5) as personal knowledge.

Stages in intellectual development are: (1) dualistic concept of the world (good-bad), (2) awareness of differences of opinions, (3) perception of uncertainty and ambiguity, (4) relativistic approach, and (5) personal commitment to a given world viewpoint.

Learning may be considered: (1) as taken for granted; (2) as a thematic activity (context of learning affects what and how something is learned).

Two aspects of understanding any subject are identified: (a) developing an overview, (b) testing and justifying that overview.

In librarianship and information science there is a need to develop a model of "Information Man' - the information seeker, user and generator." (p.172) "The most important interdisciplinary theme of study in the future. The individual studying librarianship and information science should have a head start, in that at one and the same time he is - and is studying - this Man." (Ibid.)

---- 1986:

The author reviewed types of thinking involved in the patron's search for information, reasons for its variations and their implications in information provision.

Three categories of thinking are identified: (1) sub critical, (2) surface, and (3) deep, critical. Sub-critical thinking can be unconscious, requiring library guidance in developing users' awareness of a variety of viewpoints. Surface, impersonal search aims at the minimum required for given research. The level of deep critical thinking is determined by the patron's personal interest.

Thus the "ostensibly similar library activities - using catalogues borrowing and consulting items, asking for services and information - may hide very different mental states and processes." (p. 57) Library education must place fewer emphases on cataloging, classifying and indexing, and more on the development of analytical, critical and evaluative skills necessary to the understanding of psychological and sociological aspects of information processing.

"Without this knowledge, librarians cannot fulfill their most important role in higher education: that of stimulating and facilitating personal and professional development at the highest levels amongst all members of each library's community." (p. 61)

FOSDICK H., 1978:

The author discusses trends in library and information science education. Five categories provide a conceptual framework for present courses in information: (1) Library automation: use of modern technology, (2) Information storage and retrieval: abstracting, indexing, controlled vocabularies, thesauri, searching and comparison of different systems, (3) systems analysis: engineering, and statistical evaluations, (4) interactive computer systems, such as BRS, Lockheed, and (5) programming.

FOSKETT, D.J., 1962:

The lack of philosophy of librarianship is responsible for an absence of continuity in studies of librarianship. Among the writers on library philosophy, Savage argued for the provision of books for minorities; Raymond Smith considered as most important the implementation of the policies of the parental library organization; Mathew Arnold maintained that all reading is purposive if it is undertaken for a specific reason; Ranganathan proposed five library laws, focusing similarly to Raymond Smith on library function to provide the constantly increasing knowledge to people who need it.

The bases for library philosophy ought to include the notion that "a library is a part of social organization and that librarianship is a social process inextricably bound with the life of community." (p. 7)

Following the motto of J.D. Cowley, Foskett proposes that "a good librarian must be able, as a professional, to undergo rapid, chameleon-like, changes as one inquirer follows another. If he has no politics, no religion, and no morals, he can have all politics, all religions, and all morals . . . [requiring] the dual capacity of total involvement with each reader and of remaining objective as an individual." (p.11)

---- 1964:

The criticism of science is usually based on its alleged anti-humanism. Yet, scientific discoveries are intellectually not much different from artistic creations, although scientists find it difficult to communicate their experiences, The gap between scientists and humanists can be bridged by a unity between the public library's responsibility for general culture and special libraries responsibility for keeping scientists in touch with non-scientific cultural developments. Together, libraries can promote the unity of knowledge itself, by avoiding a scientist-humanist antagonism within its members.

"After what has so often been said about the 'philosophy of librarianship', he would be a rush man who would suggest that this is what is needed, but it is hard to find another phrase that fits the situation. The truth is that we have not yet succeeded in establishing our professional purpose." (p.239)

---- 1964a:

"I believe that the study of classification and subject analysis represents the intellectual zenith of education for librarianship; but it is not, for librarians, an end in itself. Librarianship as a practical activity carried on in circumstances that vary greatly, but the end is always the same: to provide readers with the books and information they need. Education for librarianship has for its object, therefore, the fitting of librarians to do this in the most effective way, according to the different circumstances in which they may operate. Techniques, however absorbing as an academic study, are no more than tools, to be used only as long as they prove able to do the work." (p.262)

---- 1965:

Shera maintained that documentation is the extension of librarianship; it focuses on preservation and dissemination of information. His social epistemology stresses the function of recorded information in the working of a society.

This evolutionary process started with the library as a guardian of records, preventing their use by unauthorized people to promote dissemination. The focus shifted from the identification of individual volume to their location on shelves, cataloging (easier to update the records), classification (as subject arrangements) and subject headings (grouping by content). New technology, especially automation, increased productivity, but also created new social problems. With the growth of library operations, the librarian originally a scholar, become a specialized technician, abandoning the concepts of a scholar and book-man and decreasing the prestige of the profession.

Special librarians return to the former role by providing quick and effective access to needed material, working as a team with scholars, introducing 'current awareness', and improving cataloging and classification as its fundamental techniques.

---- 1968:

"Communication is a necessary activity to Man, and libraries have a positive part to play in effecting good communication. Library techniques do not exist for their own sake, but they must be continually improved and refined in relation to the social situation and the real needs of users. Appreciation of these needs leads to a re-consideration of a librarian's role vis-à-vis the scientist, on the one hand, and the artist and humanity's scholar on the other. This role can be as active in the latter as the former, but it is directed toward the fostering of insight into the human condition rather than simply toward the transfer of information." (p.305)

The teaching of philosophy of librarianship ought to start with writings of the following writers: Ranganathan's holistic approach to library science, Butler's introduction to library science, Shera's social epistemology and Russians. essays on informatics which incorporate interrelationships between philosophy of science, psychology, linguistics, computer technology and librarianship. The concept of information gradually changed from a mental record of experience into an explanation of that experience. Library classification becomes an intermediary between the structure of the record's content and its reader's thoughts.

The theory of telephone transition of messages created a confusion between information retrieval and information theory: information theory concentrates on messages of known text, while the process of transmission of messages is meaning-neutral. Librarians are focusing on individual human needs and on the structure of knowledge as recorded in documents. They provide a bridge between the fields of science and humanities, through personal services.

---- 1970:

Informatics "studies the structure and properties of scientific information [not their specific content] as well as the regularities of scientific information activity, its theory, history, methods, and organization." (p. 155)

The author distinguishes between the activities of information storage and retrieval in libraries, the study of behavior of information itself and the properties of information flow in informatics.

Foskett reviewed the relevant views of the following writers: (a) Chomsky in his ' transformational grammar' provided rules for explaining the differences between sentences of the same grammatical form. (b) Dewey in his decimal notation arranged terms, names and objects in a scheme similar to that of genus-species relations. (c) Fairthorne's 'morphology' studied behavior of information and its properties, suggesting that a new discipline emerge from the syntheses of some aspects of other disciplines into a new coherent whole, not merely an enlargement or improvement on the existing interpretation. (d) J.R. Firth developed a contextual theory of meaning stressing that language is not the science of constructing grammar and syntax, "but rather a study of the constantly developing means of communicating ideas between human beings, each of which is endowed with a unique personality and . . . unique interpretation of the world." (p.169). (e) Piaget has proved that learning depends on the accumulation of sense-data obtained by observation or experience. (f) Saussure introduced 'semiology', a study of the life of signs within society. (g) Shera and Egan's social epistemology is based on biological need of brain to engage in information-processing activities, extended to the human society. (h) Ranganathan considered bibliographic classification as an artificial language of ordinal numbers. (i) Vygotsky worked on a theory of language, explaining human ability to convert personal experiences into communicable symbols that represent a real world to other people.

---- 1972:

Bertalanffy's in his General System Theory provided a scientific explanation of 'wholes' and 'wholeness'. Sets of separate entities can unite to form a single new entity of higher complexity, by establishing fixed relationships between the elements of the set. This view contradicts the belief of reductionism that all natural phenomena can be explained in terms of physics.

The librarian does not merely tell the patron what to read, nor provides mechanically what is asked for; but he shows all relevant interrelationships of subjects in available literature, indicating structural similarities between different fields, thus expanding the reader's own experiences.

"The consequence of the systems' philosophical approach is that libraries should never be considered as ends in themselves, as closed systems, but as open systems in constant interrelation with their environment. The objectives of the library are the objectives of the community it serves, which is still part of a larger community . . . General System Theory offers an approach of high potential in its investigation for the concepts and types of structure which are more than specific to one field, which are common to the whole universe of knowledge." (pp. 208-9)

---- 1973:

The author defines information science as the discipline "emerging from a cross-fertilization of ideas involving the ancient art of librarianship, the new art of computing, the arts of the new media of communication, and those sciences such as psychology and linguistics, which . . . bear directly on all problems of communication - the transfer of organized thought." (p. 164)

The discipline includes the study of the universe of knowledge, its production and publications, acquisition and arrangement, dissemination and use, library and information service technology, planning and management, and comparative and historical studies.

Social objectives of the discipline include (a) economical and effective meeting of the real needs of the patron, by providing a "gatekeeper' service, and (b) integrating library and information services into the society, by recognizing General System Theory's interconnections between all aspects of natural phenomena, as parts of the whole system, rather than as any form of its reductionism.

---- 1974:

Central to systems philosophy is a person as a cognitive component, whose mind incorporates qualities of wholeness, order, and organization. Although all people are made of the same chemistry, each individual is unique by being able to enlarge his own self through experience. This bi-perspective overcomes the problems of mind-body dualism by offering two different perspectives within the two contexts of the internal and external relations of the same entity.

Library and information science also provides a dual perspectives from (a) internal relationships between its parts and activities (e.g., acquisition, cataloging, dissemination) and (b) from external activities of organizing information itself.

Library management harmonizes "the inter-action of all these relations so that the individual library is able to provide an environment which gives its own inner dynamics the chance to realize their potential to the maximum, while deriving the best advantage from the sets of external relations, its readership and the inner-library network." (p. 128-9)

---- 1974a:

The literature of Library and Information Services lacks philosophical insight because of (1) many hypotheses focus on differences rather than similarities between various issues, (2) purely empirical, pragmatic and behavioristic approach is based on responds to the problems rather than their anticipation, (3) predominant use of the inductive approach which is based on evidence, and reductionism.

Opposite view emerges from the General System Theory notion that natural phenomena consist of series of events with properties derived from interrelationships between inner entities of a system and external relationships with other systems. Central is the principle of 'wholeness' of parts within ,libraries' internal or societal external, structures of relations.

Libraries and library systems "are both systems for the organization of records in relation to the present and future needs of users." (p.16) "Similarly, documents are systems in the sense that a document is more than a heap of sheets of paper covered with marks. The marks are letters . . . organized to make sense . . . and the sheets are organized into a particular sequence." (Ibid.) "A library is a system in itself, but its parts can only be fully explained in relation to their inner and outer bonds, the library as a whole, and its activities connected with the other systems of which it forms a part." (Ibid.)

---- 1979:

"When McLuhan said 'the medium is the message' he was reducing the human mind to a mere tool . . . [however] what matters . . . is the message itself, not how it is send." (p.269) We are responsible for transmitting "not mere information, but knowledge and understanding; that means information which has become assimilated into the mind of another, and so become an integral part of his personality." (ibid.) "We have come to recognize unity in diversity, and to find, among all types of library, a common professional motivation to serve our readers." (Ibid.)

---- 1984:

In this collection of reflections on information, communication, information technology and libraries, the author argues that communication involves more than just moving information, the information technology is not a message and the form is not the content; the destination is more important than means of transport. Electronics devices will not record compassion and satellites will not communicate tolerance.

---- 1985:

This is a review of the writings on the future of librarianship by Licklider. D.J. de Solla, Bjorn Tell and F.W. Lancaster.

"What such writers say does not correspond to the real situation, either in the libraries or in the world of communication as a whole." (p.47) "Where theory and practice are apparently in conflict, this often turns on confusion between form and content, or method and purpose . . . each influencing the other; but content of purpose is primary, and should not be subordinated to method or form." (Ibid.)

Other problem is a confusion between statements of facts with discourse about subjects. "The confusion rests on the assumption that all processes of information transfer can be reduced to the behaviorist explanation of response to stimuli, with satisfaction of need being completed by on appropriate action, like the rat that presses a button to obtain food." (p. 48)

---- 1986:

"We transform data into information when we place such statements into a structure of ideas that forms a coherent whole having relevance to what we already understand from our previous experience." (p. 314)

"The process of communicating with a machine represents the lowest level of conversation, since the machine can do no more than answer. It cannot explain; the best it can do is to tell us to think again. We are thrown back on our own resources when what we actually want is to enlarge them by filling gaps in our knowledge." (p. 315)

"In books and journals we find more than the enumeration of mere facts. We find the opportunity for consultation, study and reflection over coherent systems of thoughts elaborated by a human mind, a mind not limited to working with bits and pieces, but exploring the nature of the whole system of ideas worked out by the author." (p. 316)

FOSS, S.W., 1909:

The author points out to the paradox of librarians' virtues: toleration of other peoples views (judicial neutrality, intellectual hospitality, and agreeableness), being all things to all people, and considering all people as the same. In his enthusiasm for work with books, a librarian is like a janitor, keeping the library in good shape for controversial ideas.

Librarians' personal activism is important for obtaining adequate appropriation by personal contact with people in power, but also managing the library by avoiding trustee's intervention. His/her duty is to get good books and to get them read by maintaining attractive and pleasant environment, and by establishing himself as an intellectual leader in the community, a custodian, an advisor and a teacher.

Reading habits will be improved by free access to the collection, stressing circulation of library material; the older approach dedicated to the past, was concerned more with preservation than distribution.

FOSTER, MARIA, 1979:

The purpose of this study is to determine the status of philosophy of librarianship in library education. Philosophy of librarianship is often used as a synonym with definition of librarianship: R.Irwin identified philosophy of librarianship with its purposes, while J. Christ with its functions. P.Butler saw it in the context of the individual in a society; A. Broadfield stressed the central importance of individual, with society's obligation to support library services to the individual. D.J. Foskett felt that librarian ought to be the alter ego of the patron he serves. J. Shera's social epistemology stressed the importance of knowledge to both the society and its individual members. Both Kolitsch and R. Burke based their definitions on theology.

Broader approaches are illustrated by C.O. Houle's focus on education, information, aesthetics, research and recreation; L. Shore emphasis on 'generic book' as communication possibilities, and by J. Thompson argument for the definition based on the power of libraries represented by their collection of cultural records of the society.

The categorical approaches were developed by R.K.Rao's actional, organismic, naturalistic and reflexive modes; by J.Z. Nitecki's procedural, conceptual and contextual premises reflecting the three library objectives to collect, educate, and mediate, and by J. Bakker's three usages of library philosophy: (1) as a frame of reference, (2) formulating aims, purposes, objectives and functions, and (3) as an ideal professional model. And finally C.O. Houle noted that no common denominator in the definition of philosophy of librarianship has yet been developed.

Foster proposes her own model consisting of four elements: custodial (conservation), humanitarian (knowledge-focused), mediative (client-oriented) and promotive (service-driven).

FOX, CHRISTOPHER JOHN, 1983:

The author attempts to resolve the ambiguity concerning the term 'information,' by applying a philosophic analysis to 'the ordinary notion of information.' He dismissed current discipline-specific information theories, and concentrated on the everyday meaning of the term.

Analytic approach used by Fox, considers theory and definition as the same study of language, focusing on how it functions rather than what is its nature, thus explaining away philosophic problems.

He reduces the concept of information to the propositions, as language independent representations of the world, and distinguishes between information and misinformation, informing, believing telling and knowing, informing and information, belief and truth. Accordingly, informing means to be in a position to know,' and a receiver must be in the state of readiness or informability, hence information science is closely related to communication.

Basic principles of conceptual analysis are consistency, simplicity and systematically. "Although there are certain principles and requirements to which analysis must conform, the activities of providing an analysis, and of judging whether a suggested analysis is satisfactory, are as much arts as sciences and leave room for disagreement and controversy. " (p. 29)

FRAGASSO, P.M, 1979:

Some of the realities of the 20th century American public library fulfilled or exceeded the expectations of the past.

Bellamy's Looking Backward, a 1888 novel set in the 20th century, criticized the library of his time as too inflexible and an elitist, valued for its impressive look and for expressing community's cultural awareness. Books were viewed as ends in themselves, to be admired at the distance. Similarly college libraries were collecting everything on the assumption that it can be of value for future research in the 'history of the field'.

Hertzka in his 1891s Freeland, A Social Anticipation, advocated a compromise between socialism and individualism, suggesting purchase of many copies of books in high demand (an approach similar to McNaughton Plan or Friends of Library sales).

Wells in Men Like Gods, described in 1922 an innovative library system that created an image of a public library as people's university: people coming to a library to instruct and be instructed themselves.

Hicks, in The First to Awaken, noted in 1940 that till present day, people lived their lives in stages consisting of: education for young, work for middle aged and leisure for old age, providing for social and economic stratification and suggesting life long education through reading.

Skinner in 1948 novel Walden Two, argued for the people oriented public library, with the books meant to be used, and the books not used not to be bought or kept.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, 1731:

Franklin founded the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731) as a subscription library that "improved the general conversation of the Americans, made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen in other countries, and perhaps contributed in some degree to the stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defense of their privileges." (U.S. Bureau of Education, 1876, Part I, pp. 505-6)

FRANTS, V.I and C.B. BRUSH, 1988:

All conscious activities are directed toward the satisfaction of needs; one of the most important is a need for information. Since it is essential for survival it is considered a vital need.

The satisfaction of the information needs can be accomplished by finding needed information among the store of knowledge, or by producing that information oneself. The two methods are partly contradictory; there is always too much information and also always too little of it.

The subject of information science is the information need itself and the study of methods and forms of satisfying it. Information need is a psychological state, reflecting 'dissatisfaction' or 'discomfort'. Its boundaries are vague because man cannot exactly express his psychological state.

A person may need information that can be satisfied by one or more documents, that express (a) concrete information needs, or (b) problem oriented needs. The same question posed by a patron may reflect different needs, each required different kind of information, in turn generating different types of documents. The user has no real need of retrieval, but a need for information.

FREEMAN, MICHAEL STUART, 1985:

Librarians expect the development of the systematized theories that will explain, predict and describe the structure of information and the dynamics of library management, by applying the spirit and the methods of research. Present theories are criticized for not relating to library practice.

The term 'research' is interpreted by librarians dialectically, as essential abstract process in developing library theory, or as a means for solving practical problems. "There are no scientific laws, few theories, and only a handful of useful models . . . rooted in a common educational experience, a sharing of problems relating to the custodianship of resources, agreement on a series of protocols on such diverse topics as cataloging and standards, and a widely held disapprobation of censorship." (p.29)

FREISER, LEONARD H., 1970:

"Information service involves a process which includes an actuality on one hand and learning on other . . . no one wants information per se; what is wanted is the knowledge which results from information. We are involved in the learning process as well as in the nature of information." (p.41) This entails "a change which knowledge may help bring about. At this point we become fully engaged in both education and social action." (Ibid.)

Problems facing librarians include: resistance to active participation in educational and social programs; "presence of pedantic, philistine and depersonalizing influences . . . inability to see similarities between the public temper and library style; the debasement of power; the debasement of objectives; and confusion concerning information." (Ibid.)

---- 1988:

The objective of public library philosophy is to define its role to provide advocacy and leadership in a democratic society. In the age of information, reference, although the major library responsibility, is not by itself its strongest point. The call for self-reliance and user's free access to online searching enhances reference but does not make it easier; 'canonization' of information will not improve reference performance.

There is a need for solving the problem of information transfer created by library's political function to provide information access to everyone, by avoiding elitism and paternalism. Every request deserves full librarians' attention.

The pessimistic concern about the future of a public library is used as a Trojan horse to change the traditional librarianship.

FRIIS-HANSEN, J.B., 1986:

Ranganathan's analytico-synthetic approach, together with his Colon classification, Five Library Laws and reference work are considered major contributions to library science.

"By means of an analysis of the subject content of a document it is being ascertained, that no search possibility in a document is left out of consideration. By means of a synthesis of the extracted or constructed subject elements in a meaningful chain of subject headings or classification symbols it is ascertained, that no possible search key is hidden to the user." (p.315)

FROHMANN, BERND, 1992:

In the cognitive view of librarianship, information is seen "as a commodity and persons as surveyable information consumers, within market economy conditions." (p. 365) "The effect of the cognitive viewpoints discursive strategy is to enable knowledge acquisition of information processes only when users and generators' 'images' are constituted as objectively given natural-scientific entities, and to disable knowledge of the same processes when considered as products of social practices." (Ibid.) By focusing on image creation, interpretation and delivery detached from material objects and marketed as commodities "the cognitive viewpoint performs ideological labour for modern capitalist image markets." (Ibid.).

In this 'hyperreality of communication and meaning' the reality itself is destroyed, and replaced by simulation with "the cognitive viewpoint's theoretical discourse of images pursuing images, representations chasing representations, and world-models requiring repair offer no escape from system domination . . . it helps to inscribe existing power inequities into the heart of LIS theory." (p.384) [LIS stands for Library Information Science]

FRUMIN, I., 1977:

The library is defined as a triadic integral system consisting of books, library and its readers. It has two functions: (1) social to satisfy society's needs, and (2) technological to operate the system. Its mission is to improve workers cultural and technical standard. Librarianship, bibliography and information science are independent and indivisible.

FRY, BERNARD M., 1939:

Relating to B.Berelson's (1938) essay, the author states that "The basic assumption of partiality is that there are large numbers of individuals who are either unable or unwilling to see the 'right side' of controversial socio-economic questions. It is to be the function of the librarian to disclose the right answers as determined by the 'frame of reference' and to 'encourage' her patrons that they will correct their modes of thinking in the light of the revealed 'facts'. (p.52)

"Such a thesis is an intolerable denial of democracy and can be supported only at the price of a certain blindness to the actual dynamics of society. It rejects democracy in that it is essentially a mistrust in the average man's ability to do his own thinking. It is also based on a radically false philosophy of society because it affirms a finality of agreement on vital controversial issues, which can never be reached except in a static society or in the wishful thinking of Utopians." (p. 53)

FURTH, HANS G., 1974:

The author emphasized the importance of the information theory, which, following Piaget's developmental theory of knowledge, ought to include knower's activities that relate to the content of what is known to him.

"Piaget's theory can make a fundamental contribution to the study of information. The figurative and operative aspects of knowledge, clearly described in Piaget's developmental theory, play an important role in information; a neglect of differentiating these aspects can only lead to practical and theoretical confusion." (p. 21)

Information is of two kinds: as a coded fact (in Piaget's theory a figurative aspect of knowing), and as a process of knowing (Piaget's operative aspect). Operative knowing means knowing how to act; figurative knowing refers to a static aspect of a particular configuration in a given situation. "Operative aspects focus on what is general; it assimilates or transforms what is given." "The figurative aspect focuses on what is given and applies or accommodates the general capacities to the uniqueness of each concrete situation. In Piaget's terminology assimilation is the inner-directed process from particular objects to general operative schemes, accommodation the outer-directed process from general schemes to particular figural content." (p. 24)

The figurative aspect of knowledge is outside the person. The commodity of information is relative; any symbol is meaningful only in relation to an operative understanding, which, when changing, also changes the meaning of the material symbols.

_of a particular configuration in a given situation. "Operative aspects focus on what is general; it assimilates or transforms what is given." "The figurative aspect focuses on what is given and applies or accommodates the general capacities to the uniqueness of each concrete situation. In Piaget's terminology assimilation is the inner-directed process from particular objects to general operative schemes, accommodation the outer-directed process from general schemes to particular figural content." (p. 24)

The figurative aspect of knowledge is outside the person. The commodity of information is relative; any symbol is meaningful only in relation to an operative understanding, which, when changing, also changes the meaning of the material symbols.

GAINES, ERWIN J., 1968:

The author criticizes Shera's equating censorship with selection. Librarians as brokers in words must defend free press "without regard to whether they like what they are defending." This is not the same as the question of what to put into the library. "Librarians certainly ought to choose what they think best," but this does not necessarily imply that they lose the "power of choice in book selection because [they] defended an unsavory book." (p. 458)

The views of Ticknor and Everett are not germane in 1967. Although one may be weary of the debate, it "must proceed until the issues are clearly understood and until librarians are sufficiently aroused to their responsibilities as influential citizens." (p.459)

GALLAGHER, H.M., 1991:

The author traces a shift in the cataloging rules from the perfectionist to a pragmatic approach in Osborn's essay 'The Crisis in Cataloging'. In it Osborn discussed four major issues: (1) change from bibliographic to descriptive cataloging, (2) importance of sufficiency of a general rule, (3) replacement of the concept of truth from absolute to contextual, and (4) introduction of pragmatic evaluation based on the consequences of action, rejecting idealism of cataloging as an end in itself.

"For the American Pragmatist laws and theories are not affirmations of truth of the world, but rather are how some of our beliefs are related to others as conditionally organized consequences and expectations - they are rules of inference or guiding principles for actions." (p.24)

The shift in cataloging was from "doing their tasks well, to considering how well their tasks contribute to the ends and purposes of the library." (p.25)

GALVIN, THOMAS J., 1975:

The problem oriented approach in library education is based on nine major assumptions about librarianship as a professional field:

(1) Librarianship is an applied discipline, combining the scientific principles and the art of applying them. (2) It is an emerging discipline lacking generalizable knowledge. (3) As a dynamic field, it is subject to rapid growth, changing social needs and new technologies; library education ought to focus on principles and processes rather than on the transmission of actual information. (4) It is an eclectic and interdisciplinary field based on the synthesis of knowledge developed in other disciplines. (5) Librarianship is a profession rather than a technical field, hence librarians must be able to adapt to new demands by utilizing existing principles, concepts, technologies and skills. (6) Decision-making processes are important in library practice. (7) Operating in institutional and organizational setting, librarians need human and technical skills. (8) Librarians must be involved in a continuous self-learning education. (9) The issues in library administration and supervision are similar to those in other fields.

---- 1984:

Information science rests on a belief that information is important for systematic study. A common goal for all scientific research is to describe natural phenomena in precise terms. Similarly in programming a computer a human process of classifying, storing, combining and retrieving information must be described precisely.

New science of information combines an understanding of information technology with the scientific study of human behavior in its information-seeking and processing mode. Among the issues that information science addresses are: nature of information; distinction of information from sensory data, processes of transferring information from one individual to another, their description and measure, influences of the medium transferring the information; study of how human minds gather, process, store and retrieve information, and replication of human processing in a machine.

The following are the types of systematic investigation in information science.

(1) Information technology is a study of a commonality between information and computer sciences, man-machine interface and design of electronic systems, computer simulation and modeling.

(2) Research centered on the behavioral and cognitive aspects of human information processing, describes the processes human use in formulating, pursuing and satisfying information needs. We witness development of a new library social mission from document delivery to effective information transfer.

(3) Sociology of information, the economics of information and information law and policy, include international and comparative studies in the library and information science as culture-sensitive and culture-free. Thus information science in its several interrelated dimensions (technological, behavioral, economic and sociological) has important implications and relevance to librarianship.

GARDNER, F.M., 1964:

The author discusses two views of library purposes:

(1) as a tool for information knowledge, which includes organizing collections, subject bibliography and librarians serving as a specialist. (2) In a library as a social service, librarians serve not only as collectors and organizers of books but also as readers of books, responsible to readers but also to their authors. Librarianship has a social purposes of contributing to the improvement of the citizens. The library is in war with 'poverty of mind', and the librarian is a 'missionary of value of books and libraries'

GARDNER, FRANK M., 1973:

The aims of the public library are: (a) contribution to sustaining educational, economic, industrial, scientific and cultural quality of life; and (b) promotion of the concept of democratic society.

The public library objectives include: education (supplementing formal education), information (as a referral to specialized information), culture (promotion of cultural events) and leisure (to individuals and special groups).

"The real danger in ignoring the needs of the user . . . lies in identifying the purpose for which the material is used with the material itself." (p. 211). Quoting L.R. McColvin: "Quality is more important than quantity . . . but the librarian must avoid betraying his own ideals of freedom by attempting to assert his own ideas and values." (Ibid.).

GARFIELD, E. 1973:

A network diagram of citational relationships can constitute a reliable 'outline' for writing a history of a field. A historiograph is a graphic display of citation data that shows the key scientific events, their chronology, interrelationships and their relative importance. It is a tool, compiled manually or automatically. Using a bibliography as an input, a librarian can print citations from which he can identify key papers. This tool is called Science Citation Index.

The first historian of information science was George Sarton who found ISIS. His main concern was a precise chronological reconstruction of events, analyzing and interpreting cause-effect relations.

In 1922 E.W. Hulme used the 'statistical bibliography', a description of the history of science and technology by counting documents. Pritchard used 'bibliometrics' to describe the quantitative analysis of citations (called by Russian scientometrics).

---- 1987:

The significance of information in the society is illustrated by its impact on the following issues: (a) right information at the right moment; (b) information-rich environment contribution to new ideas, (c) shift of economy from industrial production to information-based goods and services, (d) revolution in financial markets (availability of instant financial information), (e) new social and ethical questions arising from the information age (information can be used for good or misused for evil), (f) issues of privacy, and (g) the study of information itself (how to improve its effectiveness).

GARRISON, GRETHEN J., 1934:

There is a need for new citizenship awareness of the world as a whole, and understanding issues such as causes of international conflicts, world economic conditions, overpopulation, propaganda, secret diplomacy and human ignorance. "Knowledge is power . . . man who knows . . . is less easily duped by falsehood, misinterpretations and confused half-truths." (p. 20) "Public libraries are the laboratories of enlightened world-mindedness." (p. 31)

GARRISON, Guy, 1988:

Library schools incorporate information content into existing disciplines instead of developing interdisciplinary programs free of allegiance to other disciplines, technologies or applications. Few schools recognized philosophical and practical necessity for providing several tracks within the information programs and institutionalized setting.

Information science programs that developed since 1960s reflect transition from an era of information interested in documentation within an institutional framework to an era of information exchange in de-institutionalized setting.

In the past the challenge was to incorporate into library science curriculum documentalists (1940s), audiovisual specialists (1950s), information science (1960s), information system and resource management (1970s and 1980s).

Since US has no central planning organization, the future of the curriculum will be determined by free market. Presently each discipline considers information as extension of established field. Some people maintain that the opportunity to incorporate information into library discipline was lost, leaving the librarianship the territory that nobody else wants.

Interdisciplinary research must focus not on information technology per se but on information content, transfer, and interactions of users with information systems of all kinds. If this window of opportunity is not taken advantage of, library and information science education will have a problematic future.

GARVEY, WILLIAM D., 1979:

Interactive communication is an important aspect of science considered as a social system. Librarians will provide better service to the scientists if they understand the information users they serve. Information needs of each individual scientist may differ reflecting different kinds of scientists and constantly changing information needs. Librarians ought to be aware of information-exchange activities of each scientist they serve. "The ultimate function of a sophisticated data bank would be to become part of the scientific process itself - to anticipate scientists' information needs; to disseminate information created by the scientists in the community being served to other scientists outside the community on whom it would be predicted to have a significant impact; and even to generate information such as synthesis as a result of analyzing information flow and use." (p. 120)

GATES JEAN KEY, 1976:

The author provides basic historical definitions of the library, librarian and librarianship.

(a) 'Library': is a term used in England since 1374, as a place for reference, study and service. In 19th century the definition was expanded by adding library building and its collection, considered the library as an institution. The library is the only social agency devoted solely to the purpose of collecting, preserving, making available, transmitting, and securing effective use of the records of civilization.

(b) 'Librarian': The term evolved from watching and guarding the books by their keeper to a bibliographic specialist and library administrator, trained in library science. The term does not distinguish between the profession (librarianship) and its members (librarian).

(c) 'Librarianship': the suffix '-ship' denotes conditions, office or profession, defining librarianship as the office, duties or profession of librarianship. Basic elements of librarianship are accumulation of knowledge and experiences of the society to the individual patron and its continuous transmission through graphic records such as books (Butler). Carl White added the concept of power to retain, organize and use the accumulated heritage of all humankind in all forms.

---- 1990:

"A major function of librarianship has always been to organize whatever type of material have been available at the time; to recover, find, or retrieve information and knowledge from these materials; and utilizing any and all available methods, to transmit them in some usable form to those needed or requesting them." (p.203) "When librarianship was not ready or able to satisfy all the additional needs involved in managing the tremendous volume of information, a new discipline began to emerge. " (Ibid.).

The basic objectives of librarianship and information science are the same. Major differences are in the techniques used, especially computers and in the interdisciplinarity of information science, independent of any particular environment, while librarianship is associated with specific institution.

Computer science focuses on computer programming, data processing and applied mathematics. Information science concentrates on the nature, generation, organization, processing, distribution of information, and on solving its problems. Information activities include traditional library functions of collecting, classifying, recording, storing, bibliographic and physical access to information through reference services, bibliographic and online search, interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, translating, abstracting, indexing, and teaching library techniques. More recently information activities also include creating, developing and marketing information products.

GELL, MARILYN KILLEBREW, 1979:

"Librarians have always defined their mission in heroic terms and proclaimed it with an almost religious fervor . . . to promote enlightened citizenship and to enrich personal life." (p.171) "From an institution with rather general educational, cultural and recreational aims . . . the library will . . . become a part of our essential machinery for dealing with these concerns." (Ibid.)

"Libraries are more than purveyors of information and distributors of books. They are also a symbol of social order."

(p.172) "They are the custodians of value. This role is one that is assumed by no other institution." (Ibid.)

The major paradox is "the discrepancy between the social justification which has been the library creed and the actual use made of libraries which consists largely of the delivery of recreational reading to the middle class." (p.171).

---- 1981:

"Information does not behave like other products. It is characterized by simultaneity of ownership, difficulty in exclusion and nondepletability." (p.833) It "can be sold and retained at the same time; it is difficult to keep people from using it; and the supply is not exhausted no matter how many times it is sold."(ibid.) It "doesn't fit the traditional supply and demand curve of any of the economic theorists." (Ibid.)

GERACI, D. and L. LANGSCHIED, 1991:

A distinction is made between social, scientific, humanistic and mainstream data, their meaning and uses. The author describes the skills needed to integrate the data services into the organization served by the library.

GERARD, D.E., 1959:

Librarianship is primarily sociology, secondly a bibliography. The library is the largest department of education in the world. The basic question is what libraries can do to help people help themselves?

---- 1963:

Criticizes McClelland's call for neutrality. McClellan assumes that the provision of informational material by itself is sufficient to respond to the changing environment. Although librarianship developed methodology it is behind in keeping up with the new purposes. The public library cannot be isolated from changing social environment represented among others by commercial motives and tastes of non-educated part of the society. "It is not enough to start a career in libraries with a vague feeling that books are good thing, but that the essential collaborative act between humans is brought about through literature. We are its keepers and its centre." (p. 27)

The 19th century ideal of self-help and mass enlightenment is replaced by giving patrons what they want, responding to "crude, semi-literate requests for more and more of worse and worse

. . . [trying to make] what was good popular, and what was popular, good." (p. 28)

Living in the 'Age of Permissiveness" librarians struggle with the concept of freedom of action of the patron not as an individual but as a customer, with new censorship's maxim: _what sells goes'.

"The reductio ad profanum, the narrowing of the taste has reached the limit. We don't want to be passive assistants in the process, but rather active opponents. We are a cause - the cause of liberation of values, rescuing values from their present imprisonment" (p.30)

---- 1975:

The author discusses the relationships between fiction in literature, representing the world of imagination and leisure, and the librarian's responsibility as 'the public servant'. The book lost its authority and is facing a competition from other forms of recording thoughts, characterized by the shift from the 'word' to an image. This requires librarians to learn the meaning and impact of new symbols on the traditional concept of literacy.

---- 1978:

Historically the early modern period of a public library began in the last half of the 19th century with opening of libraries to public, expressing liberal Benthamite doctrine and J.S.Mill philosophy of self-help, and philanthropy without state intervention.

There is little evidence of equivalent searching or social analysis in academic libraries. Special libraries are considered separate, relating directly to information science concern with technical rather than social issues.

The meaning of the concept of the library shifted from fixed location and exclusiveness into global dimensions of service, aided by telecommunication.

In the West libraries are the products of humanist culture, the focus is however changing to technology.

Libraries become laboratories of social change (e.g., adult literacy, services to minorities and underprivileged) getting closer to a political arena, thus negating the old neutralist stand. The question now is 'what kind of politics?' and how it relates to book selection. The politics are more radical and libraries are meeting new competition by offering broker's services and focusing on personal needs of the client.

---- 1983.

This is a critical review of the position on reading, which reflects the paucity of research on difficult, subjective reading habits. It is truisms rather than truths to state that reading is unique, and unrepeatable, that each reading of the same material is different, and that the emerging meaning is expressing books' and its reader's views.

Nikolas Rubakin's extreme Benthamite view is criticized for measuring readers' emotional responses statistically; 'the volume and nature of images' "add nothing whatsoever to our understanding of the silent transactions between reader and writer." (p. 290)

GERHARD, KRISTIN H., 1991:

The author discusses the criteria to be used in the selection of detective fiction. "Demand alone does not seem a useful criterion in building enduring, high quality collection." (p.49) "Detective stories must be judged in terms of what they intend to accomplish within their genre . . . how well a work meets the requirements of the form, and what unique contribution it makes." (Ibid.)

GETZELS, JACOB W., 1957:

The radical shift in the general concepts of values in our society, makes identification of learning values difficult. A lack of definitional uniformity creates a dilemma of providing simultaneously for wisdom, demands of a marketplace and for the individual patrons needs.

The library must face these complexities of shifting values and provide to its readers models for identification and growth, consistent with readers' own personality and the sacred and secular values of his society.

GILCHRIST, ALAN, 1982:

The term 'scientist' in the expression 'information scientist' is there because the originators of information science were scientists exchanging information with other scientists. "These roots in the disciplined world of science should not close our eyes to the fact that the practice of information science is highly subjective. Bibliographic information retrieval in a process which attempts to maximize the probability of recalling relevant documents . . . [is] a subjective process." (p.1)

GILCHRIST, ALAN, 1986:

The emergence of information science is briefly traced to (a) the invention of printing, (b) works of Pascal, Leibnitz and Babbage (17th-19th century), (c) 17th century revolution in science (d) introduction of learned journals and accountancy profession (Late 18th c.) (e) Industrial Revolution, (f) introduction of abstracting journals (early 19th c.) and in this century (g) emergence of special libraries, and professional organizations of information scientists.

Today's information market consists of communication experts, data processing managers, librarians, system analysts, information scientists, marketing personnel, record managers and computer scientists.

Popper's described information field in his World 1 (material), World 2 (mind's product) and World 3 (results of material-mind interaction). W2 is a mental analogue of all in W1 & W3 (the whole cultural heritage), with information covering all manifestations of W3

Models of information are described in terms of relationships between the originator of information, its receiver, its intermediary (librarian) and the processor (repackagers of information). The intermediaries are: (a) discipline-oriented librarians imposing order, (b) mission-oriented information specialists providing analysis and synthesis, and (c) problem oriented subject experts offering interpretation and advice. The major distinction is however between service providers and system management.

GIULIANO, VINCENT E., 1969:

Librarianship is compared to medicine, distinguishing between professional staff (physicians-librarians) and nonprofessional (hospital and library administrative assistants). Instead of associating librarianship with institution ( as 'hospitalitarianship') librarianship should be defined in terms of its function as that of knowledge transfer (corresponding in medicine to the prevention and curing of diseases).

The traditional functions of librarianship have been concerned with the application of only a narrow collection of highly institutionalized technologies and procedures that carry these functions. As medical scientists do not have to be medical practitioners, so the information scientists do not have to be librarians.

GLAZER, NATHAN, 1959:

Urbanization dramatically changed library relation to the urban community. In 1930s the public library reflected the age of immigration, upward movement, primacy of a book as means of communication, solid architecture, bound books and no dust jackets. Libraries were centers for self-improvement. The financial support of libraries by state and community agencies was greater, while today, although reacher, we spend less on libraries than on city parks.

A shift from public to institutional libraries is indicated by increased publishing efficiency improved access to books with new distribution through a supermarket, mass circulation of magazines, and influence of TV. The library lost its architectural monumentality. Its function changes from local, self-directed to bureaucratic type of services, focusing on technology and change in the urban environment itself. Population dispersion made a library less accessible.

The concept of efficient service is important but it may underestimate the significance of much less efficient yet valuable one-to-one services, and the provision of a library environment that allows the patron, especially in urban communities, to be alone with a book.

"The need to serve is admirable. But the need to serve also creates certain distortions; for example, in its drive for efficiency and usefulness it tends to ignore the importance of the inefficient and unusable - the book that is rarely or never borrowed (but if it is of value it will be someday), or the space that merely exists as space, with the wonderful psychological effect space can have." (p.80)

"The important thing is the setting for a special kind of experience - being alone with a book." (p.79) "In the American urban texture there is no place to hide, or, more positively put, no place to be alone in a productive and restorative way." (Ibid.)

GLEAVES, EDWIN S., 1982:

The 1980s are characterized by the dominance of electronic technology and its applications in information science, development of network communication, expanded data storage facilities and computer-based bibliographic system.

The major issue is whether librarianship as a generic term, is big enough to encompass the expanding concepts of information science and information management, both contributing to the theoretical and intellectual base for librarian's operations.

GLEICK, JAMES, 1987:

Twentieth-century science will be remembered for just three things: relativity, quantum mechanics and chaos. Chaos becomes a global science of the process of becoming rather than a science of the state of being: "Relativity eliminated Newtonian illusion of absolute space and time; quantum theory eliminated the Newtonian dream of a controllable measurement process; and chaos eliminates the Laplacian fantasy of deterministic predictability." (p.6)

Information allows for fantastic juxtapositions and leaps of imagination. There is no library of forms and ideas against which to compare the images of perception; it is a function of brain to find order in that chaos.

In Shannon's information theory, 'information' stands not for ideas, concepts, events, numbers or words. It is a value-free term without any connotation of facts, learning, wisdom, understanding or enlightenment. But it can be measured, transmitted over communication channels, and used to test transmission for accuracy. The shape of the theory is determined by the hardware, with bits becoming basic measure of information. The theory provides for a study of how noise in the form of random errors interfere with a flow of bits, predicting capacity of communication lines.

Information concept relates to the notion of 'redundancy'. The ordinary language contains over 50% redundancy in the form of letters that do not necessary convey a message. Part of the redundancy in ordinary language lies in a hard to quantify meaning, since it depends on the degree of knowledge of the language. The stream of data in the language is less than random: each new bit is partly constrained by the bits before, thus each new bit carries less than a bit' worth of real information. Hence a paradox: the more random a data stream, the more information would be conveyed by each new bit.

The concept of entropy is an adjunct to the second law of thermodynamics, expressing a tendency of any isolated system to slid toward a state of increasing disorder. Entropy is the name for the quality of systems that increases under the Second Law - mixing, disorder and randomness. Strange attractors conflate order and disorder and gave a twist to the question of measuring a system's entropy. They serve as efficient mixers, creating unpredictability, raising entropy, and thus creating new information.

Energy in natural systems exists on two levels: the macroscales, where everyday objects can be counted and measured, and the microscales, where countless atoms swim in random motion, unmeasurable, except as an average entity or temperature. The scales do not communicate with each other, but the chaotic systems bridge the gap between these two scales, thus creating information by the virtue of its unpredictability; each new observation is a new bit. The information is transmitted from one scale to another, with a strange attractor as a channel transmitting that information, magnifying the initial randomness just as the Butterfly Effect magnifies small uncertainties into large scale weather patterns.

Billions of years ago there were just blobs of protoplasm with the information created and stored in the world structure; so in a development of each person's mind information is not just accumulated but also generated (created) from the connections that were not there before.

Robert Shaw study of the behavior of water dripping from the faucet, illustrated the fact that an order is so ingrained in apparent disorder that it would find a way to express itself, thus distinguishing between mere noise interference and chaos as an orderly disorder created by simple processes.

In 1980s chaos brought to life new kind of physiology based on an idea that mathematics could help scientists understand global complexities independent of local detail, recognizing the body as a place of motion and oscillation. The newly recognized rhythms were invisible on a microscope slide, but added meaning to the interpretation of irregular heartbeat in cardiology, leading to a concept of 'dynamical diseases' manifested by disorders of systems, breakdowns in coordination and control or irregular oscillations. (pp. 255-62, passim)

GLOSSOP, MIKE, 1978:

Librarianship reasserts its concern about individual by its interest in the theories represented by Human Relations School, theories on social interaction and group dynamic, participative management, subject specialization, and user education.

Study of communication is the central library concern involving reader-library-information interactions.

Knowledge about libraries is fundamentally social, raising epistemological issue of emulating scientific tradition of natural sciences by diverting the attention from the fundamental questions of librarianship to more centralized, bureaucratic concerns such as mechanistic dehumanization and formalization as illustrated by statistical data.

The importance of subjective knowledge was recognized by Husserl who provided impetus for the non-quantitative or qualitative tradition in phenomenological movement.

Phenomenology means the study of appearance, illustrated by Kant's distinction between things as they are perceived and as they actually are. This is the antitheses of Comte's positivism considering all phenomena subjected to invariable natural laws.

It was this association of positivism with a primitive reductionism that leads phenomenologists like Husserl to reject the scientific method as inadequate to explain social phenomena. In contrast to positivism, phenomenology insists that experiences (particularly personal experiences) are the main objects of philosophical inquiry. Facts and objects cannot exist independently of man's consciousness. Phenomenological sociology does not focus on the subject with the exclusion of the object, but is concerned with the dialectic of perceiving subject and his experience of the objectiveness of social reality through communication and understanding. The problem is the understanding of the subjective logic of the social situation.

Phenomenological methodology involves a suspension of pre-suppositions about situations or events, with beliefs, theories and preconceptions considered as topics in their own right, that are critically analyzed, free of bias and prejudgement.

Phenomenological action research rejects rigid behaviorism by emphasizing the importance of subjective meaning attached to a situation by an individual and evaluated in terms of that individual's values. It provides not a theory of organization but a method of analyzing social relations. It is an applied research searching for the most effective means for bringing desired change in which knowledge become a component of action.

Scientific research stresses that all phenomena are reducible, the phenomenology is concerned with totalities but is criticized for its subjectivity and lack of comparative criteria.

The relevance of phenomenology to librarianship relates to: (a) study of a library as an organization, and (b) as a suborganization of the community. In this approach information is viewed as a derived demand, not as a commodity demanded for its own sake. The approach will affect collection of data, interviews or participant observations, radically departing from traditional library research.

Traditional librarianship is criticized for its obsession with means rather than ends (doing it right rather than doing the right thing), and for avoiding complex social issues (insensitivity to local or special situations, rejected in the name of objectivity of service). Value judgments are made on the basis of existing operations assuming that the system is already optimized.

Library research must adopt the epistemological focus on the study of man rather than things, by redefining the subject-object relations, and by concentrating on concern and care, rather than simple objectivity.

GOFFMAN, W., 1973:

Information science is concerned with the study of the principles underlying communication processes and information systems. A communication process is a sequence of events resulting in the transmission of information from one object (source) to another (destination) by means of a system. The function of information system is to carry the communication process. Information retrieval process is an instrument for providing effective contact between the source and destination within a communication system.

A system can be defined as a collection of elements interacting in the performance of some function for some purpose; the elements of a system may consists of either tangible things or intangible operations. The purpose of a system is associated with the requirements placed upon it by its users, while its function deals with procedures employed by the system for satisfying these requirements. It is essential that a system has both a purpose and a function, its evaluation depends on both.

The function of an information retrieval system is to carry out an information retrieval process, i.e., to put users and information together (e.g., telephone system connects people but is not responsible for information conveyed, while the user of information retrieval system requires that the contact lead to a specific transmission of relevant information).

GOLDHOR HERBERT, 1942:

The author describes an evolving general theory of book selection based on literary criteria and reading needs that are determined by sociological and psychological studies of what happened when people read.

Three factors are considered: (1) reader (his previous social environment), (2) publication (content and style) and (3) the goal (sought by the act of reading that reflects the reader's personal wants, as stimulated by his social environment). The success of the selection is determined by the degree of similarity between the goals and effects of reading.

The concept of 'the economic reader' is based on a profile of average readers; their reading habits and preferences for borrowing books from a library, a friend or by buying them from a bookstore. The selection of material differs between individual and institutional approaches because of a variety of reading purposes. Public library selection aims at: (1) a well-rounded collection, (something on everything, determined by the material published, previous circulation and expected needs of registered customers), and (2) selection based on a type of reader to be served (a right book to a right reader at a right time), reflecting reader's predisposition, availability of material, and library objectives.

Most people read to reinforce their views or for relaxation, hence major public library objectives aim at information, education and recreation. However, educational objectives are not based on specific needs but on past circulation; a library provides material without any specific educational goals because it is not responsible for the reading impact on the reader.

Library objectives must be clear and based on the knowledge of readers psycho-sociological needs, on the socio-economic profile of reader-as-a-group predisposition and on the scope of publishing activities. Selection aims at the general reader profile, trying not to duplicate material available elsewhere.

GOMEZ, M.N.G., 1990:

The author recommends replacing the qualitative specification of information facts by 'point of view' approach that relates better to the interdisciplinary of the field. The recommendation is made on the assumption that the value of information depends on the relationships between the pragmatic interpretation of information in a theoretical context (meta-information) and its actual social environment.

GOODE, WILLIAM J., 1961:

The professional status of librarians requires that (1) the knowledge of librarianship be organized in abstract principles applicable to concrete problems; (2) new knowledge is created; and (3) all knowledge is controlled by the profession.

The knowledge base of librarianship as 'specialization in generalism' is insufficient. Librarians' function to 'reduce the anonymity of books' is not backed up by scientific knowledge. The subject specialist usually knows better than the librarian how to find the material in his own field, and he considers librarians' knowledge in other fields as irrelevant.

The librarian's obligation to give the reader what he wants weakens his professional autonomy and is in contrast with the ethical code of scientists' dedication to knowledge. In this context, the concept of professional neutrality is not acceptable, since the librarian facilitates the accomplishment of the values of others, the individual library patron, or library public in general. "The Golden Mean, as Max Weber remarked long ago, is not necessarily more correct that either extreme." (p.20) Hence, the repeated calls for "a philosophy of librarianship essentially express the need to define what is the intellectual problem of the Profession." (p. 13).

GORE, DANIEL, 1967:

Libraries are poorly managed, with more money spend on personnel than on books, inefficient operations and library schools perpetuating the status quo.

The competent college librarian should be a scholar and a teacher, a capable supervisor and one who 'enjoy the society of scholars.' "Excellent libraries can be excellently managed by men of letters who had no formal training in librarianship." (p. 94)

---- 1969:

"If American librarianship has any substantial philosophical foundation . . . then the rock upon which that foundation rests must be an immovable opposition to censorship activities in American libraries." (p.200)

The library must "be perfectly neutral mirror of the universe, a faithful reflector not only of the good, but of the ills that is in it too."(Ibid.) "The only possible alternative to this ideal of neutrality is a library that is in some way an instrument of dogma, something devised to . . . disguise it." (Ibid.)

This approach is necessary in a pluralistic society; the principle of freedom from censorship in librarianship is comparable to the principle of academic freedom in classroom teaching.

The author proposes the doctrine of absolute negative authority, the policy allowing the patrons or library staff to overrule any clearly stated objections to a particular book.

---- 1970

Some philosophers feared written words and books; among them Socrates considered written words useless, Plato condemned writing in Phaedrus, and Ortega y Gasset called for librarians to regulate the production of books.

Librarians should follow the Skeptic formula of suspending their judgment. Sextus identified three kinds of philosophers: (1) the dogmatists believing in the existence of truth, (2) those who deny the possibility of knowing the truth, and (3) the Skeptics, the 'searchers'. The Skeptic "through suspension of judgment on nonevident matters, . . . achieved the mental tranquillity that permitted him to function sensibly according to the laws, customs, and faith of his people - and to continue his philosophical inquiries." (p.956)

"We must have a philosophy for our mission that can accommodate all dogmas by assenting to none. The name of that philosophy is Skepticism."(Ibid.)

Some critics of this essay commented that: (a) Ortega y Gasset's call for the organization of recorded information was distorted by Gore (A.B.Lemke). (b) Skepticism may be a perfect foundation for a philosophy of librarianship but not for individual librarians (D. Hollenberg). (c) Jacques Maritain expressed another view on tolerance, stressing the importance of having strong convictions but also respect for the convictions of others (J.B.Black), and (d) the belief that Gore's article expresses the views of most academic librarians (A.W. Stewart),

---- 1973:

This is an expansion of the author's essay on skepticism (1970). Plato opposed intellectual freedom as we understand it, by advocating government censorship. Jose y Ortega in the Spanish version of 'The Mission of the Librarian' (1935), which was omitted in his speech and its translation, extended to librarianship the Platonic position about books (J.Ortega y Gasset, 1935a). " As Ortega sees it, a library ought to be, principally an office of government censorship." (p. 135)

The mission of the librarian is the making of libraries, not allowing others to do it for him. "A problem universe requires problem libraries. Making them is the most demanding and the most awkward necessity of the librarian's mission, since in the nature of things libraries must contain many books that offend our neighbors and ourselves." (pp. 140-41)

---- 1981:

The author argues for a 'no-growth' library collection, expressed in "the theoretical model of an academic library that does not grow in size, although its contents change from year to year in response to changing reader demand." (p.2185) "The probability of patrons finding in it the books they want will be twice as great as it is in the traditional, evergrowing library." (Ibid.) The right size collection is determined by low number of unused books and small number of complains about lack of specific titles.

---- 1982:

Gore suggests that the Ortega y Gasset's call for regulation of book production by librarians can be met by resource sharing.

"The kind of book that goes out on interloan should be typically in such low demand at the lending library that it will be glad to give it to the borrowing library." (p.1378) "The fact that the book is actually wanted at the borrowing library is the strongest possible statistical indicator that the next use of the book (if any) is most likely to occur in the borrowing library - which should . . . hang on to that albatross until some other library offers to remove the burden via interloan." (Ibid.)

GORECKI, DANUTA M., 1976:

"Since its beginning during the Enlightenment, the history of Polish librarianship has been shaped by two forces: the cultural sophistication of the eighteenth century segment of the population, and Poland's geopolitical location and its consequences. The former stimulated private and public book-collection . . . [leading to the establishment] of an organized library network. The latter retarded this process by periodic destruction of Polish cultural institutions during the partitions . . . both world wars, and in the continuing post-World II period." (p.22)

Polish research on reading was influenced by (a) Russian, Nikolai Rubakin's theory of 'bibliopsychology', arguing that the meaning of the content of a book changes with each reader; and by (b) an opposing view of German, Walter Hofmann's 'socio-educational' approach, arguing for the existence of similarities among a group of readers in similar social and economic circumstances.

The author concludes that "libraries did develop admirably in a poor, uneducated, and relatively feudal society, surrounded since the eighteenth century with infinitely more powerful enemies; and that these libraries not only survived these social and political conditions, but were one of the forces which brought about considerable improvement in them." (p.22)

GORMAN, M.A., 1990:

Gorman criticizes library schools for their overemphasis on information science, appointment of the school faculty with no library background, and for equating paraprofessionals with professional librarians. This attitude undervalues librarianship and fails to provide education relevant to library needs.

GORN, SAUL, 1967:

'Computer and Information Sciences' (CIS) is a new discipline that focuses on interdependence of symbol systems and on the processes of interpreting them in terms of cybernetic pragmatism, which considers what can and cannot be mechanized.

CIS draws from engineering, mathematics, philosophy, psychology and linguistics. Specific disciplines affected by the new discipline include: (1) physics (pattern recognition), (2) chemistry (automatic translation between formula language and names of chemical compounds), (3) biology (genetic codes), (4) psychology (perception and pattern recognition), (5) linguistics (mechanized language translation, linguistic analysis and information retrieval), (6) arts (information content of sound), (7) networks (electrical, city planning), (8) law (reformulation of legal concepts), (9) library (indexes, thesauri, search strategies, information storage and retrieval), (10) medicine (automatic statistics for epidemiology, management, storage and retrieval of medical cases), (11) management (production control, decision processes), and (12) education (scheduling, programmed learning).

In the past focus has been on specialization of labor, now it is on generalization, since machine become more efficient than human in performing detailed, repetitive tasks.

Cybernetics includes any systems that contain communication and control subsystems, and maintain a balance between communication and control of the whole system and individuals in it.

The psychological development of individual must parallel the sociological development of the culture. Pragmatic consideration refers to relationships between symbols and their users or interpreters, either human or mechanical. The things, concepts, arts, and sciences, invented in the past have changed into great illusions. Idealism and materialism, mind and matter, idea and will, communication and control "are as absurd to live with as a world in which egg and chicken, each demand precedence." (p.441)

When general information expands the capacity of memory or the retrieval device, either the fission into subdomains, or fusion into more compact structure occurs, resulting in different levels of language restructuring and abstractions.

CIS components in other disciplines are described by the following principles.

(1) Ockham's razor principle in economics: deletion of all unnecessary hypotheses, stressing simplicity in esthetics, irredundancy in logic, and precise expressions in linguistics.

(2) Process in flow memory principles: cause and effects search for the first cause and for mechanisms of evolution.

(3) Stability, or steady-state principles: the communication-control balance in cybernetics, minimum distance principle in optics, and general relativity.

(4) The traffic pressure and density principles: laws for scattered models in biology, ecology and entropy.

(5) Laws concerned with transition behavior: a domain of paradoxes, antinomies and dualities (transitions from static to action states and vice versa).

(6) Growth principles: heuristic decision-making and goal-seeking procedures in social sciences, and arts.

(7) Need for less specialized courses in liberal arts, and more specialized courses in application of tools in other disciplines.

Professions are the transformers of information into action in human society, and should have the insights that enable practitioners to transfer knowledge into power, information into action, and communication into control. Here the value systems measuring efficiency in the substance or tools of communication are esthetic; the values measuring control or action are ethical. Each discipline has its own characteristic types of insights, and can be verbalized only by the philosophers of the discipline.

The study of CIS offers an insight into what is or what is not computable, what is and is not mechanizable. Without such an insight the citizens cannot make the ethical decision on what ought or ought not be mechanized.

---- 1983:

The purpose of this paper is to distinguish informatics from library science, information retrieval, information science, cybernetics, cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, semiotics, linguistics, computer engineering, management, decision science, education and mathematics.

Informatics is concerned with the study, design and use of data structures and their transformation by mechanical means (machine amplifies symbol manipulations). It is empirical and experimental rather than formal discipline, modeling human symbolic behavior in heuristic searching and problem solving. (The theoretical side of informatics is called analysis of algorithms, together with its empirical side it is called the design of algorithms). It is included in cybernetics communication and control of symbolic systems by machine.

Ideology is a systematic body of concepts, a manner or the content of thinking, of an individual or his culture, also defined as assertions, theories and aims of a sociopolitical program.

Knowledge, is what we try to symbolize, when we communicate. It is not merely a relation between what is known and the knower, but a result of an attempt to communicate, involving community of knowers as well as what is known.

Definitions are rarely nominal or real, but are often reduced to experiential basis; the definition is not simply the presentation of a necessary and sufficient condition for recognizing a new concept, it is preceded by a special condition.

Basic assumption in action-oriented disciplines is free will, in empirical science it is determinism; the role of any professions is to transfer knowledge into action.

In order to retrieve relevant information one must understand the structure in which it is stored, by comparing ideology of the storer with the ideology of the purpose for which it is to be retrieved. This pragmatic dependence on the ideology of the subject also applies to library management and information retrieval.

Organization of the library will constantly change, hence its problems will never be solved; and the library profession will never be static enough to be mechanized. Librarians will experience degree of technical obsolescence. This however, will not affect the profession of librarianship since its main goals are not limited by technology used.

Computer science should not be separated from information science, but be considered part of the same discipline, the informatics. Otherwise it would become a metascience that would destroy important mixture of knowledge and action. Even nonpragmatists and extreme idealists such as Wright would agree that this would be a wrong way to go.

---- 1983a:

Gorn refers to 'mechanical pragmatism' or 'computer and information science' that shares in cognitive activities. The computer scientist deals with semantic interpretation of symbols, although not as a living reality, subject to natural and ethical laws.

The manipulation of symbols involves syntactic interpretation of notational systems with only sporadic use of mathematics or logic. Mathematical methods are used by theoretical informatics as applied mathematics.

Misuse of computers may lead to human disaster. There are many meanings of meaning: the author defines meaning as pragmatically symbolized objects. He disagrees with Kuhn that the mark of single discipline is a single paradigm, since single ideology can unite different approaches, before the paradigms are formulated. Paradigms are social decisions concerning a proper course of action for a given ideology.

GOUGH, CHET, 1972:

Many long established systems are considered to be a reality, while in fact they are mere human constructs subject to change. This implies that one can initiate a change within himself or his organization, and have impact on the environment.

"The librarian's role is in the organization and presentation of the knowledge we have accumulated so far. He can do this adequately only if he is in touch with the knowledge he is trying to organize. It is not possible to be aware of the possibilities unless the knowledge we have is coordinated, consolidated and synthesized This is one of the functions the librarian can perform, but he needs . . . to be willing to take the risk of presenting all the knowledge, not only that which is acceptable." (p. 152)

GOULD, SAMUEL B., 1965:

The basic goal of the library is the provision of service to the greatest number of people. Our present civilization resembles ancient Greek period in which citizens were involved in intellectual matters while slaves performed all mundane tasks, with today's machine rather than slaves providing more leisure time.

In the library perceived as the core of community, librarians can provide leadership in recreation and continuing education by developing reading habits, keeping community informed and by providing material on issues of interest to the patrons.

The library as the core of conscience has a mission of creating and nurturing a respect for individual, by preserving individual dignity, offering its patrons "not only a sanctuary where man may thing and learn and refresh his soul, but a constant reminder to him that he can use all that mankind has thought, accomplished, won, or been." (p.3996)

GOVAN, JAMES F., 1988:

Privatization is a process of turning over public functions to private industry, claiming that it is more efficient, less expensive and provides a better service.

Such change no longer maintains a balance between quality and solvency but it seeks to enhance profit (e.g., publishing industry's interest expressed in best sellers at expense of quality, or in government a shift from informing the public to economic considerations, allowing private business to profit from publishing government information).

Librarians are now expected to make profit, by considering information as saleable commodity. The change started with budgetary considerations, by passing vendor charges to the client, and instituting charges for ILL, network and online search, thus moving libraries closer to business world, and advocating openly privatization of our profession.

"The issue is one of professional values and priorities. Instead of entering the business world, librarians should turn their thoughts and energies to preserving the established values of their profession in the electronic age . . . safeguarding access against economic pressures, not adding their own charges to public sots of information and learning." (p. 38)

GRASBERGER, FRANZ, 1952:

The library as an institution has a very long, unchanged tradition of collecting, classifying, preserving and rending useful its collections. Throughout ages ways of accomplishing these goals changed dramatically by increased diversity of material, changing modes of thinking, and of library users. Public and educational libraries focused on serving its patrons needs, the scholarly libraries concentrated on specific subjects and preservation of intellectual values.

In its eighty years of existence library profession witnessed a shift from the scholar's own library to the larger scholarly library, gradually changing the image of a librarian from an intellectual scholar to manager.

The term 'library science' (Bibliotekswissenschaft) was introduced by Martin Schrettinger in early 19th century, who defined it as a practical knowledge of library processes and management. Similarly, Goethe considered library administration as a prerequisite to other activities. Georg Leyh in 1940 defined library science not in terms of its substance, but as a contiguity of separate disciplines united by an accidental common denominator, a book. The discipline "lacks the common intellectual seeds from which any science must grow." (p.38)

Joachim Kirchner in 1951 differentiated between historico-philological research and practical organization of library collections.

The lack of balance between the external (administrative) and internal (scholarly) meaning of librarianship weakens the perception of the essence of the discipline. Modern emphasis on library organization depersonalizes its operations, creating a disparity between mechanical processes and individuals' inner needs of satisfaction from work performed. This problem can be resolved by developing syntheses of library theory (scholarship) and practice (management).

The major goal of librarianship is not the size of the collection, but its careful selection, "a responsibility which can be discharged only by librarians who have the opportunity to follow the progress of knowledge and of literary production." (p.45)

GRAY, EDWARD, 1986:

The author maintains that Plato was against writing, because it offered information without discourse. He quotes the dialogue in Phaedrus " you offer your pupils the appearance of wisdom, not the true wisdom for they will read many things without instruction and will therefore seem to know many things, when they are for the most part ignorant." (p. 41)

The quote is interpreted as saying that instruction must precede reading, "a simple truth: verbal instruction comes first and the written become a remembrance of it." (Ibid.)

The same approach is practiced today: the pre-school education involves a verbal discourse and verbal education provides a foundation for intellectual development. However, the amount of things to be remembered increased dramatically since Plato, requiring that verbal teaching be supplemented by the skill of finding and retrieving relevant information in the vast cultural storage of knowledge.

"Thus the long-term changes have not so much occurred in the function of discourse or writing, but rather in the way of ensuring that the latter . . . remains still accessible to us. And this . . . should actually be one of the major goals of PLs." [i.e., a public library]. (pp.41-2)

GRAZIANO, EUGENE EDWARD, 1955:

Library classification of records involves logical systematization of books' content, based on metaphysical theories of reality and knowledge. Dewey's classification schedule accepted main subject headings from William Harris classification system. Harris's main subject classes were in turn, 'inverted' categories of Francis Bacon's classification of knowledge, while his subject divisions were based on Hegelian philosophy.

"Only the logic of Hegel can account for Harris' basic Subject Classes and Divisions. No other philosophy except that of the ancient Greeks could underline his classification schedule." (p.62) "It is unthinkable that either Harris or Dewey could have developed independently a logic identical with that of Hegel." (Ibid.)

---- 1967:

""Library automation is symptomatic of a radically changing civilization in which operationalism is displacing logical thinking. Library operations are being reformulated as systems of process rather than of function. One of the consequences is that the profession of librarianship is being redefined."

(p. 403)

Logical positivistic operationalism invalidates logic and reason as irrelevant, validating only non-functional, machines manipulated acts. The Library functions are abstractions of actions common to individuals with the similar interests formalized from their behavior. Computers 'dehumanize' librarianship by changing the mode of librarians thinking from logical to operational, shifting from man-centered to machine-centered approach.

---- 1975:

Many library functions can be reintegrated in the language-operational gestalt which expresses "what cannot be expressed by using English." (p. xiv)

Following the Hegelian notion that all fundamental questions relate to the definition of the identity of the entity being considered, Graziano poses a number of questions about the meaning of basic concepts in librarianship, such as: what is the book, a library, its function, information, or information science. These questions cannot be answered within the language-operational convention. Hence, Graziano calls for a reexamination of the fundamental premises of library science based on conventional language-operational habits, to be replaced by language-operational Gestalt.

Epistemologically, each library contains some Gestalt of universal knowledge, differentiated into various types of library records. Both the form and the content of librarianship are cross-disciplinary, analytical and integrative, considered as analogs of the 'real world'.

The proposed approach of language-operational-gestalt awareness is "a self-destruct trip'; for closure of the gestalt it constitutes is identical with obtaining freedom from the tyranny of language, logic, and reason, and therefore from compulsions to philosophize away all of the cobwebs and delusions that have emanated from so many specifics of poor grammatical usage." (p 449)

GREEN, LOUIS V., 1991:

The author notes similarities between the fields of broadcasting and librarianship in questioning fundamental assumptions about role, purpose, organization, structure and source of finances of each discipline. Both disciplines are in a state of transition from a trusteeship model of service, in which scare assets are held in trust on behalf of a society served, and a more market-centered model. Both serve pluralistic viewpoints by providing access to a wide variety of interest and ideas. However, librarians have much less political pull than the broadcasters.

The lesson drawn from the comparison points to a need for improved evaluation of libraries' customer preferences, less defensive attitude about librarians services, and a need for more 'politicizing' their concerns, especially in the area of freedom of information.

GREEN, REBECCA, 1991:

"This study establishes three predominant cognitive models of information and the information transfer process . . . based on linguistic analysis of phrases incorporating the word 'information'" (p.130): (1) the direct communication (DC), and (2) indirect communication (IC), both assuming the perspective of the information system, and (3) the information-seeking (IS) model that takes the viewpoint of the information user.

The author concludes that since DC and IC models are based on weak empirical data, and the IC model emphasizes the information system, "the field lacks a coherent model of information transfer per se and that our model of information retrieval is mechanistic, oblivious to the cognitive models of end users." (Ibid.)

It is important to understand human interaction with recorded knowledge that results in changing cognitive understanding. This requires change in the language describing our field, by focusing more on the learning and knowledge than on the information retrieval.

GREEN, SAMUEL S., 1876:

In a public library both unlearned patrons and scholars receive assistance. Some of it is provided by catalogs, which however require instruction in their use and assistance in selecting a right book. Important is the avoidance by librarian of propagating any particular views.

GREER, ROGER C., 1987:

Following definitions of some concepts related to the information science, the author describes a conceptual model for the discipline. Knowledge is defined as an awareness of reality, information as recorded knowledge and data as unprocessed symbols. Communication consists of sender, message, medium and receiver, with a message recorded and received through information transfer. Information science provides a theoretical base for information professionals.

All information processes are characterized by a common core: (1) information engineering (design of a system that identifies, evaluate, select, acquire, organize, retrieve, repackage disseminate and discard data); (2) information organization management (defines the mission, assesses information needs and develops policies and procedure); (3) information psychology (behavioral processes related to information awareness and processes); and (4) sociology of information (social processes, policies and environmental context).

The research model consists of (a) social, behavioral, managerial and engineering processes; (b) policy and environmental contexts, and (c) relevant theories and methodologies.

GREGORY, LEE H., 1959:

Librarians are involved in the classification of knowledge which requires "a speaking acquittance with the total body of human knowledge, a comprehensive understanding of basic principles defining their scope [hence] . . . the library should have a missionary zeal for informal education." (p. 47)

---- 1960:

This is a response to a journal's rejection of his article 'Creative librarianship' on the ground that the magazine has limited space for professional discussions other than 'how-to-do-it' papers. The author felt that "the profession needs not only new machinery and improved methods to take care of its everyday routine services, but constant evaluation of those services in the light of experience . . . we act just like another salesman, whose main concern is to sell more goods, BUT WE ARE NOT ENGAGED IN SELLING GOODS! WE ARE ENGAGED IN CLARIFYING ISSUES IN A WORLD HARASSED BY ALMOST UNBEARABLE PROBLEMS!" (p. 222 - the author's capitalization)

GREGORY, MARSHALL W., 1983:

The academic profession is characterized by a conflict between careerism and selflessness, illustrated by three Greek characters described by Plato: Protagoras (rich, cynical and respected Sophist, the archetypal careerist), Socrates (a disinterested seeker of truth and moral values and a dedicated teacher) and himself (a master of meaningful insights). Protagoras is 'the professional's professional', Socrates represents a professional we would like to be, but only Plato can serve as a model for our profession, showing us "how to be professionally polished without indulging in narcissistic careerism, and how to maintain a grip on personal integrity without having to settle for hopeless obscurity." (p. 44)

The author stresses the importance of ethical aspect of library practice that influences the library profession. Plato criticized Protagorian careerism, debated Socratic radicalism offering a centrist approach of criticism and discourse.

GREMMELS, GILLIAN S., 1991:

"This article examines the validity of the neutrality stance used as the primary response to reference questions that present ethical dilemmas. The problem is considered from two perspectives: recent advances in research methodology and new theories of the public interest from the disciplines of political science and communication. It is concluded that achieving objectivity is impossible for humans and that librarianship, like all human endeavor, is riddled with values. A communitarian ethics that would recast reference work as a force for the public good is proposed." (p.362)

The communitarian theory of public interest differs from the traditional liberal public interest theories by stressing a contextualistic focus on all aspects of human relationships, with the individual interest subordinated to public interest, and government actively promoting equity. The approach of liberal theories equates individual interest with the public interest, and expects the government to provide impartial judication. "Not only is neutrality impossible for the librarian, but the entire concept is based on tenets of rights-based and utilitarian-liberalism." (p. 368)

GRIFFIN, BRIAN, 1973:

The virtues of the British socialistic philosophy are illustrated by public library importance in providing informal, non-standardized education in the increasingly standardized society. The limitations of the approach are evident in library attitude to the 'non-conformers' by offering wide range of subjects, simultaneously providing appeasing recreational materials for the majority of its patrons, in order to pacify them.

The approach becomes undemocratic "not because we do nothing for the people, but because we do everything for the people." (p.128) "To what extent is the public library, willy-nilly, acting as an effective neutralizer of individuality? The more concentrated and scientific the system, the severer the limitations of the individual." (Ibid.)

Social conscience always ends up in reinforcing vested interest against individuals' interests. This paradox can be resolved by public libraries if they stop thinking in terms of 'current social realities.' (p.130)

GRIECO, MARIE, 1967:

Librarians must be generalist focusing on interrelating knowledge of different disciplines, by providing services not only for all, but also for each patron. It is important to remember that the environment shapes us and is shaped by us.

Sensual perceptions and visual learning are fundamental and require a multidimensional approach in libraries by expanding its focus beyond print matter into multidimensional media. In reading a book one recreates authors perceptions, in seeing a film or sculpture one apprehends the whole at once, it is a creative process.

GROVER, ROBERT J., 1985:

A core course in library and information science should include: (1) a professional philosophy of the library and information science, related to one's own value system and providing a framework for setting priorities, and value system for decision-making, (2) study of behavioral patterns in communication of information (individual needs, selection, processing and use of information), (3) theory of information transfer (defined by Shera as 'body of knowledge about knowledge itself' expressed in creation, dissemination, and organization of information in a society), (4) methods of organization of information for efficient retrieval, (5) management of information systems (mission, objectives, policy's selection etc.), (6) ability to analyze patrons needs by applying appropriate research methodology, and (7) educational, cultural, informational, research, recreational and bibliographic social functions of the library.

GROVER, ROBERT and JACK GLAZIER, 1986:

The authors propose a model for theory building which displays relationships among phenomena at various levels of theory and research. The approach is based on the Aristotelian notion that 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'; it is not enough to understand each component individually, the approach must be holistic: "the concept of unity or interconnectedness that is integral to the taxonomy is one of the basic principles that typify the philosophical position of many thinkers today." (p. 241)

Research involves data collection and analysis in preparation for theory building, either through formal research methodology or by a synthesis of information gained through reading, discussion and experience.

In both cases there is a 'creative leap' or intuitive synthesis that generates theory. Theory is a verb: it is constantly evolving, a dialectic process in which theory becomes a tested thesis.

GRUNDT, LEONARD, 1975:

"It is important to move away from the current emphasis on standards for specific types of libraries. Instead, standards should be formulated for measuring the extent to which the total library resources of various geographical areas are coordinated." (p. 177)

"There will be greater cooperation only when librarians and society at large have a mutual commitment to work together for the benefit of all people. We must somehow change the attitudes of those who see little value in sharing. Joint programs must be perceived not as potential treat but as potential promises of more effective and more efficient library services." (p.178)

GUPTA, R.K., 1969:

Librarianship faces the problems of an image (stereotype), conflicting professional status (professional vs. clerical tasks), autonomy (obligation to satisfy the patron) and satisfactory code of ethics (problem of discrepancy between values and practices).

Theoretical knowledge provides principles as bases for library practice. Philosophy of librarianship is weakened by librarians abdicating their professional autonomy by not distinguishing between the attitude of servitude to the patron and professional goals of assisting the reader in the use of library materials. Professional criteria of values ought to protect the librarian from pressure groups interference stressing his duty to safeguard freedom of thought.

GWYNN, STANLEY E., 1954:

The ability of the university library to serve the undergraduate is not directly determined by the university library size, nature of its book collection or complexity of its organization, but by the educational needs of college students.

These needs can be fulfilled by the university library if the students posses necessary knowledge and skill in the use of library resources. Teaching these abilities is the function of liberal education, and is best provided in a small college environment. The university library has to compensate for its impersonal character by providing individual instructions in library purposes and techniques.