This essay, although politically obsolete, is a good example of philosophical interpretation of librarianship in a totalitarian state. It describes political and economic aims of Soviet libraries in building communistic society.

Motives and objectives behind the free provision of printed material determine the social role of librarianship, which changes with the changing needs. The theory is based on Lenin's principle of making the whole human intellect available to all people through education and self-development in socialistic system. It proclaims that: (a) library activities must be subordinated to the political and economic tasks, (b) expressing the ideological and theoretical viewpoint, in order to (c) increase technical skills of reading, and (d) to develop reader's ability to appreciate the ideological level of material read, by increasing the readership and readers involvement in libraries.

In the words of the editor's introduction, "it is the whole substructure of convictions and beliefs . . . that requires precise definition . . . [in order to understand] the crucial difference in aims and methods" of the democratic and communist systems. (p.151)

ADAMS, JOHN, 1931:

Integralism in education, introduced by the French, and adapted by English and Italian educators, aims at creating some order in educational curricula.

The library is a natural center for such unification. The school librarian is a liaison among teachers - specialists, instructing students how, but not what, to read, and providing integration in school curricula.

The author quotes Thomas Carlyle: 'The modern university is a library of books'. The librarian is a book specialist focusing on knowledge about books, not their content; he or she is not a book keeper in a museum of the past, but the distributor in the store house. He instructs the patron about the book and reading, and in extreme cases serves as a spoon-feeding provider of reading.

ADAMS, THOMAS R., 1984:

The concern about books is addressed by librarians as administrators and curators who cares for them, printers who make them, publishers who promote them, booksellers who distribute them, collectors who treasures them, trustee who oversees the institution housing the books and the authors who write them - but none addresses the book itself and its needs.

For years the content and physical book were treated as inseparable. Library collections were based on the needs of the readers, while private collectors acquired books for their own satisfaction creating the oldest and least democratic collections. In the 18th century the collections were elitist dedicated to self-selected patrons' needs. The college libraries, later extended their collections to graduate and research users, and finally, expanding into general collections in the 19th century by addressing needs of future users.

Microphotography (in 1930's) and electrostatic printing (in 1950's) changed the relationship by focusing on the content of the book and information management, rather than on the book itself.

Rare books collection is related to, but different from a conventional library. Librarians consider the book as incidental; their first responsibility is for the control of information. Rare book librarians are primarily concerned with books, not its content (information), asking rather than answering questions, and serving history rather than people. (First rare book collection was set up at U of Michigan, in 1899).

AFFLERBACH, PETER, 1985:

This dissertation on the understanding of reading comprehension assumes that reading is an interactive process, depending on the relationship between the reader and the text, determined in part by a prior reader's knowledge of the topics discussed in the material read.

AGADA, JOHN, 1984:

Personality traits of librarians are not well suited for their job. They are submissive in social situation, demonstrating weak leadership, lacking confidence in themselves and feeling inferior. On the other hand, they tend to be inner-directed, friendly, sociable, liberal and nonrigid, with conventional life style, disinclined to take risks, resisting technical and social changes.

ALEXANDER, JEAN, 1944:

In reviewing the Journal of Information Ethics, the author identifies three ethical themes of the journal: (1) philosophical, (2) censorship, and (3) electronic information, and discussed the current controversy between post-Enlightenment schools of ethics, utilitarianism, Kantian's deontology, and the context-based neo-Aristotelian approach focusing on ethical practice.

"The underlying philosophical question is the possible danger to the public good of an instrumental approach to the generation and dissemination of information." (p.269)

ALLEN, BRYCE, 1981:

Information is the content of communication; librarians facilitate communication by selecting, acquiring, and organizing the material, thus bringing author and reader together.

Increased specialization reduces the coherence of the community, by introducing a centrifugal force within the information system: individual subject-specific interest overlooks the system as a whole. However, the negative entropy, [i.e., the information itself] counteracts specialization by providing guide to the interdisciplinarity of knowledge.

ALLEN, BRYCE and DAVID RESTER, 1990:

In the discussion of content analysis a distinction is made between data of content analysis (e.g., a document) and their context. The context includes the author of the document and intended meaning. In library and information science literature the 'content analysis' has two meanings: (a) as a research method, and (b) as an 'unscientific' expression of interest in the contexts of texts.

ALTMANN, A.E., 1988:

The primary role of the academic library is to support teaching and research. Basic definition of the librarian is by function, or task. The library is administered hierarchically, not by subject areas. Divisional libraries resemble teaching departments.

The departmentalization by function in academic libraries was necessitated by reliance on one large, single copy catalog. The introduction of computers calls for changing the traditional functional-based hierarchical relationships into matrix-style organization characterized by multiple reporting relationships and heavy emphasis on managerial network and cooperation based on shared goals. Collegial management is most successful in smaller libraries.

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION:

The ALA as an organization exhibits a surprising lack of interest in the philosophical aspects of the profession, with a major exception in the area of Ethics. There are no permanent committees addressing the philosophical issues, no educational activities or formal encouragement for the work in that field.

"The basic objectives of the American public library may be codified by the use of five convenient word symbols: (1) education, (2) information, (3) aesthetic appreciation, (4) research, and (5) recreation (ALA, 1943, p.20). "The librarian will not tell people what to think, but he has a duty to assist them in deciding what to think about. It is essential for the librarians to know what subjects and issues are vital as to know what books are good." (Ibid., p.22)

ALA's adapted a code of ethics in 1929, revised and reviewed it in subsequent years. Ethical issues were elaborated in ALA Code of Ethics (1939), ALA Post-war Standards (1943), and ALA Bill of Rights (1948)

The main tenets of the code of Ethics for librarians state that "the library as an institution exists for the benefit of a given constituency . . . (the librarians) assume the obligation to maintain ethical standards of behavior in relation to the governing authority under which they work, to the library constituency, to the library as an institution and to fellow workers on the staff, to other members of library profession, and to society in general." (ALA, 1939, pp. 128-9)

These principles are restated in a form of six statements relating to: quality of library services, resistance of censorship, privacy of information use, equitable personnel policies distinguishing between personal and institutional philosophies, and avoidance of conflict of interest. (ALA, 1975). Unfortunately, ALA provides no means for enforcing this code.

ANEDRSON, A.J., 1985:

The antithesis between the concepts of 'theory' and 'practice' is false. It is based on a mistaken identification by practitioners of the concept 'theory' with what is thought in library schools, and by academicians with the meaning of the concept 'practice' held by practitioners. Theory is an abstract concept, practice refers to activity; the two terms cannot be separated because mental activity cannot be disjointed from physical processes. "Theory is theory of practice; and practice is practice of theory." (p. 5)

ANDERSON, GLEEN A., 1988:

Major changes are often seen as revolutionary, stressing differences rather than similarities, yet utilitarian interpretation of changes motivated by utility overlooks more important factors in cultural changes. "Utility was not the strongest factor in the initial adoption of the codex form. Indeed, it might be suggested that a utilitarian emphasis is likely to mask the more important factors in any cultural change." (p.116)

ANDERSON, HAZEL, 1957:

In communication words are common medium of exchange, the containers and the ideas the things contained. Writings are made up of words, but words are symbols of ideas, not the ideas themselves. "To give information is to unlock the word hoard." (p. 6)

ANDERSON, J. F., 1968:

Codes of ethics are mixtures of general moral principles and definite rules of conduct relating to the professionals, their clients and their colleagues. They are often updated, however, moral truths do not change, although their applications depend on economic, political and social changes. Ethics must relate to circumstances, consequences and goals aimed at. Codes are voluntary, developed and enforced by peers with primary concern for public interest.

ANDERTON, R.H., 1987:

Dretske's semantic theory of information is based on the proposition that meaning is manufactured from the raw material of information, that information is the content of information-bearing structure, and that meaningful knowledge is extracted by cognitive processes from information.

Three kinds of information can be used in a system: as a transforming device, as an information flow, coordinating action, and as a factor in changing the environment.

Cognitive processing is a kind of a filter in which structures with higher orders of intentionality are constructed. Knowledge as a system is called knowledge because it is based on information.

ANWAR, MUNTAZ, 1967:

The author reviews the development of public library goals in the UK and USA from the fulfillment of moral aims of the 19th century to the assistance in the educational process in the 20th century. The focus in Britain was on political consciousness of electors, while in USA the stress was on cultural and intellectual objectives. As a product of democracy the basic objectives of any public library are to assists in universal education, by providing information and facilities for research and recreation.

APOSTLE, RICHARD and BORIS RAYMOND, 1986:

A synthetic model of an information paradigm is based on the assumption that the most important in librarianship is the acquisition, storage, organization and retrieval of information.

The term 'information' includes: data, facts, theories, opinions, communication and commercial commodity. It also describes environment, profession, society and science.

Recent emphasis is on "abstract, systematized bodies of knowledge and their rapid retrieval and transmission for generating new economic development," (p. 377) shifting from the traditional role of a librarian as educator, counselor and conservationist to an information provider.

The role of a book is reduced to that of an information container, suggesting that the profession of librarianship ought to separate itself from the library as an institution.

The model is criticized for overlooking other functions of librarianship (e.g., reader's services), overemphasizing its computer-related information services, and confusing the terms 'information' with 'knowledge'.

Librarianship and information science are considered the same discipline, by applying new technologies in procurement and handling of information, studying its nature and transfer. Fundamental is the question whether "libraries continue to serve the public educational, cultural and recreational needs, or will future librarian consider these needs peripheral and outside of their professional concern?" (p. 383)

ARNTZ, HELMUT, 1983:

His 'palaeology of information' states that physical manifestation of the constantly acquired new information is the expanded storage capacity of the brain. The most important in the emergence of man was the process of acquisition, storage, and conceptualization of information.

'Information pressure' for selection as a need for survival, creates new demand for adequate communication and expanded acquisition of new information. The desire for 'being informed' counteracts natural laws of Darwinian selection.

ARTANDI, SUZAN A., 1973:

Shannon's mathematical theory of communication is a necessary but insufficient definition of information because it excludes the sender, the receiver of the signal and its meaning. It addresses engineering problems of reproducing signals in general.

Shannon model includes: source, message, its transmitter, and interfering physical noise, but it excludes the meaning of the signal. Weaver added semantic noise, which distorts the meaning of the message, expanding the model by including semantic and effective (pragmatic) levels of communication. The semantics relates to the relations between the meaning of the signal send and received. The effect of the communication is determined by the psychological, emotional and ethical reaction of the receiver of the message.

Mathematical theory of communication is defined as the measure of one's freedom of choice in selecting a message; the amount of information (entropy) is defined through the amount of freedom one has in constructing messages. In a fixed number of choices, information is larger when all probabilities are equal, i.e., when uncertainty is the greatest. This principle creates a problem of distinguishing between information defined as the measure or the removal of uncertainty. Shannon's information stands for 'potential capacity', not for the amount actually communicated. Information must be relevant (new) to be able to remove existing uncertainty. Hence, relevant is negative information; the irrelevant (or old) information cannot remove the uncertainty, and should not be considered 'information'.

---- 1975:

Information is a means of societal decision-making process. Irrelevant information is distinguished from negative information.

Communication is a process of adjusting understanding and attitudes, based on common language, interest and common knowledge. The content of information in communication process is considered within the framework of two theories: Shannon's Mathematical Theory of Communication and semiotic interpretation of sign system. Shannon's focus is on the accuracy of information transfer; the focus of semantics is on the difference between receiver and sender's interpretation of the meaning in information transfer.

In Shannon's theory information defines one's freedom to select a message, measured in terms of probabilities and affected by noise in the transfer. The amount of information is measured by the logarithm to the base 2 of the number of available choices.

In Semiotic theory, communication is determined by (a) syntactical relations between physical signs, (b) semantic relations between signs and their designata, and (c) pragmatic relations between signs and their users.

Shannon's engineering aspect of communication is important in transference of signals; but the library science focus ought to be on semantic nature and pragmatic effectiveness of communication.

---- 1978:

Growing information output is coupled with increased reliance on information in all social interaction, in everyday decisions and in satisfying each curiosity; all of them interact with new information technology.

Information is a resource with political and economic value (it can be developed, controlled and utilized); it is a product, a service and commodity. It does not follow the laws of conservation of energy, but becomes obsolete. Acquired at the expense of other resources, information is not free.

Individuals relate increasingly to their environment through information, rather than direct experience; biologically their intellectual capacity is limited, while information grows exponentially leading to the information overload and what Lukasiewicz calls the 'ignorance explosion', "a degradation of . . . relative intellectual ability to deal with information" (p. 16). Hence, supply of information relates less to the speed of information transfer and more to the fundamental question of interpretation and understanding.

Industrial Revolution substituted human energy by machine. Information Revolution by introducing computers devaluated mental work, and affected production, communication, economics, nature of work and leisure, privacy and individual liberty.

ASHEIM, LESTER:

Asheim is a major contributor to the education of librarianship and its professional organization. He recognizes a need for library philosophy that would (a) define the meaning of library activities in terms of community needs, and (b) redefine the concept of the professional librarian.

There can be no leadership "without a philosophy of librarianship which gives meaning to what we do . . . the librarian's philosophy is mainly one of the 'how' rather than 'why'." (1957, p.103)

He defined his own philosophy of librarianship as service oriented and user-focused. Librarianship is seen as an amalgam of humanities, social sciences and sciences.

In the preface to Butler's book (1961), Asheim stresses the importance of a transfer of attention from process to function and of the need for the philosophy of librarianship to respond to the needs of the coeval society. (1961)

Asheim made a distinction between censorship ('any deliberate bar against free access to books') and selection (based on the value of the book's content to the particular library readers) (1953). The focus is on the library user rather than the library itself; the user is considered in terms of community needs rather than wants, thus justifying the librarian's selection activities. However, open, indiscriminate access to all information is not always good, since it may create information overload, irrelevance and communication noise.

In his essay on Ortega (1982), Asheim argued for the need to extend librarians' responsibility to 'filter' information, suggested by Ortega, by developing means for selecting from total information that which is needed by individual client.

Reading is a major concern to Asheim. It ought to include promotion of lifelong reading habits for pleasure as well as for specific knowledge. (1959) There is a need to teach critical reading in self-education, and to distinguish between book reading and book use. (1984)

The book will remain important for verification, reflection and deliberation, but less useful, where 'sustained thoughts are not required'. Civilization is not depending on printed books; new communication technology displaces the old one, but seldom completely replaces it. (1955)

ASHWORTH. W., 1979:

Librarians, committed to idealism of service to everyone, developed series of cannons and romantic principles, now regarded as axioms. Each of them is based on the belief that everyone should have access to all knowledge stressing the concept of universal bibliographic control of all records. This view is circumscribed by the law of diminishing returns stating that with increased degree of perfection cost escalates dramatically.

The problems inherited in these unrealistic assumptions were magnified by the information explosion which increased the demands not only for the document but also for the information it contains.

When the amount of activities equals the amount of resources available, the continuing exponential growth of knowledge stops. The old axioms that larger collection offers greater access to knowledge, must be replaced by new priorities of preservation, and quality selection. "The greater rate of publication . . . the higher the proportion of poor quality material produced." (p.161). Therefore, increased rate of obsolescence requires increased weeding-out.

The Ranganathan's 'save the time of the user' cannon should be extended to 'stop the user wasting his time.' The model of a perfect library is one that is attainable: it must contain the material that is needed: "the criterion for acquisition and organization for optimum effectiveness is that the number of copies of desirable material in . . . library system, and their geographical and retrieval accessibility, should be in proportion to the mathematical probability of the profitable use of each item." (p.164).

ASSOCIATION OF RESEARCH LIBRARIES, 1986:

Changing library environment impacts on relationship between scholars, publishers and librarians as well as on formats, user behavior and impedimentation of free flow of information.

New technology influences resource sharing, preservation, management of information systems and complicated decision making, calling for more specialized staff.

Scholarly communication is defined as a social phenomenon in which intellectual and creative activities are transmitted between scholars. It consists of the author, the ideas, the means of communication and the consumer of the information. It is a self-generating process. Not well understood is the process of changing user behavior, its impacts on relationships between scholars and library organization and the mediating roles of the librarian. Research library serves as the center for production, storage and retrieval of research material. The journal is a major communication vehicle for the users of scholarly communication.

ATKINS, STEPHEN E., 1988:

The American research on the subject of librarianship in 1975-1984, although popular, was uneven (a 'roller coaster'). The overall number of articles with librarianship as a primary subject decreased, but they increased as secondary subjects. Overall peaks for both levels were reached in 1976, 1980, 1981, and 1984.

ATKINSON, ROSS, 1993:

The future relationships between library and commercial publishers will determine the future role of librarianship. The two agencies differ in the service attitude to the customer. The end-purpose of librarianship is the service to its patrons, while service is a mere means-to-business in the commercial publishing.

With the increased availability of information on line, many of the services provided by both these agencies will be available directly from writers, limiting the market, affecting the determination of the quality of service needed, and increasing the competition between libraries and commercial publishing.

The main challenge will be to provide satisfactory services at distance. Librarians ought to enter scholarly publishing, develop closer links with computer centers and university presses, provide publishing facilities to the faculty by cataloging, indexing, and on-line distribution of the published material through other libraries. The main advantage of librarianship over commercial publishing is in its ability to provide personalized relationships with its patrons and by tailoring its services to the individual needs of local library users.

AULD, LAWRENCE W.S., 1990:

The seven issues in library education are: (1) professional and academic expectations (service vs. research), (2) library science and information science (theoretical vs. practical approaches), (3) undergraduate programs (paraprofessionalism), (4) minority recruitment (library staff composition reflecting population mix), (5) international librarianship (goal variation among different countries); (6) size and organization of library schools (degree of library interdependence with parent institution), and (7) general vs. single purpose programs (librarian as a generalist vs. specialist).

Library school faculty focuses on research and teaching, minimizing professional activities and service. The practitioners emphasize professional training and service, considering research as a minor requirement. It is important to distinguish between the goals of library and information science, archives and information resource management.

BAKER, NICOLSON, 1994:

Traditional librarianship as illustrated by the card catalog, is now being replaced by online system. The card catalog with all its formal and informal annotations is, like an old manuscript, an irreplaceable record of bibliographic scholarship. The computerized catalogs, although effective retrieval systems, are harder to browse, have fewer cross-references, subject headings and annotations (p.69).

- "When we redefine libraries as means rather than as physical places - as conduits of knowledge rather than as physical buildings filled with physical books -- we may think that the new, more 'visionary,' more megatrendy definition embraces the old, but in fact it doesn't: the removal of the concrete word 'books' from the library's statement of purpose is exactly the act that allows misguided administrators to work out their hostility toward printed history while the rest of us sleep." (p.78)

BALLARD, LLOYD VERNOR, 1936:

The American library as an essential part of education system, is an educational filtration plant. It should develop social homogeneity based on the inculcation of a set of common ideas. It discharges its social responsibilities by exploring the wisdom and experience of the race. State should protect the library from negative influences.

BALLARD, T., 1988:

There is a significant change in the library service orientation by shifting emphasis in public libraries from book collection to provision of information. The technological changes will follow only when they are easy to use by people.

BAR-HILLEL, YEKOSHUA, 1955:

The term 'Theory of Information' is used in the USA since 1948 as a subscience of Communication Theory. In England it is applied to general scientific methodology, a more comprehensive science related to fields such as semantics, sociology, anthropology, or physics.

The concept of information applies not to the individual messages (as the concept of meaning would) but rather to the situation as a whole. Communication starts as events that are extra-linguistic, and is verbalized, reverbalized, encoded, send, distorted, received, decoded, expanded, understood and acted upon.

Communication engineers task is to devise a mechanism by which a significant sequence of words, produced by somebody, is reproduced at some other place, with shortest possible lag time.

Economics in time and cost can sometimes be achieved by permitting a certain deterioration in the replication of the original message, based on the redundancy of natural language.

The concept of semantic information has intrinsically nothing to do with communication. Semantics lies outside the scope of mathematical information theory. However, there is a logical relationship between the amount of semantic information (meaning of the message) and the frequency of its use.

Statistical theory of communication, introduced in 1948 had a significant impact on information theory processes such as estimation of relative frequency of words use.

BARZUN, JACQUES, 1969:

The modern public library is not a storehouse but an intelligence agency. The librarian is often a technician trained in acquisition, cataloging, reference and management. Mechanical work is performed by computer, but the computer is useless as a source for intelligence. The book is not the same as its abstract, its content cannot be understood in advance.

There is no knowledge explosion; new knowledge is often old knowledge rehashed, or transferred from one container to another. The information explosion refers to an increase in the quantity of records.

A librarian is a reader-teacher, and should leave the role of technician to a computer specialist; he is not a specialist providing knowledge in the abstract, but a practicalist performing an important, next to life-saving service, of expert communication of intelligence."(p.3965).

BATTIN, PATRICIA, 1984a:

Librarians know more about computing than computer specialists about libraries. Academic librarians always distinguished between information and knowledge, subscribing to a philosophy based on the organization of knowledge and support of continuing scholarship.

Information managers treat all information as data, and are more concerned about the technology, hardware and systems than with the content of these data.

The challenge is to integrate information technology into the existing information system, with a centralized, coordinated linkages and compatibility to serve the diversity, and to permit the autonomy in productive scholarship.

"We need to keep in mind that information is not a property of documents, nor of bibliographic records, but the relationship between the data and the recipient." (Nina Matheson, quoted by Battin 1984, p.13)

---- 1984b:

Traditionally a library was defined as a storehouse where librarians 'mark and park' records, by maintaining bibliographically controlled archival collections of documents, with a catalog used as an inventory of the collection. Today the focus is on scholarly information with emphases on access and preservation of documents. Most important is the coordination of all branches of scholarship.

---- 1985:

Librarians should consider information as a function, concentrating on the user demands for knowledge, not a format. Development of the structure for the linkage between variety of formats and institutions holding them, will be a joint responsibility of computer and library science.

Most of the traditional task-oriented activities will be delegated to paraprofessionals. Teaching, consulting, planning, designing, developing and coordinating activities related to information function, will be assigned to the professional librarians.

BATTY, C.D., 1966:

Librarianship is not about knowledge, but about its organization. Librarians are concerned about the form and structure rather than the substance or content. The focus is on 'how' rather than 'what'. This approach requires a faculty of judgment defined by Kant as relating general principles to particular cases in the selection of appropriate rules. "The librarian must direct his practical experience by his theoretical knowledge and increase his theoretical understanding through practical experience."

BATTY DAVID and C. Bearman, 1983:

In librarianship as in general information activities, organization of knowledge consists of list-making.

Library traditions, until 1876, were pragmatic, concerned with bibliographic scholarly description of individual books. This approach started in late Renaissance, was cultivated in the 18th century and flourished in the 19th century.

Earliest writings were inventories, kept by monasteries, and used as catalogs. Library catalogs were the product of book trade: Aldus Manutius (15th century) provided descriptive bibliography, Andrew Maunsell (17th century) offered subject catalogs, and Marchand and Brunet (18th century) introduced general idea of bibliographic classification. Booksellers were interest in commercial catalogs grouping similar books in one place. Classical bibliographers recorded minute differences between them in order to identify individual copies. Scientists in the 19th century were protodocumentalists, compiling their own indexes.

In 1840 Jewett distinguished three factors important in universal bibliography: access to materials, reproduction technology and consistent description. Panizzi, Jewett, and Cutter attempted to standardize such descriptions.

Classical bibliographers are concerned with differences between published copies, librarians stress similarities in order to collect them in separate subject groups, documentalists and bibliographers are interested in detailed bibliography, using library techniques.

Library and information science differ from research in two respects: (1) the discipline is structural rather than substantive, (2) it never provided solid quantitative base

for empirical observations.

BAUGHAM, JAMES C., 1977:

In order to minimize the indefinite growth of library collection, the author suggests structural method in collection development based on the notion of 'bigger the collection the better.' It is a qualitative approach replacing 19th century principle of comprehensiveness by the ideal of 'completeness'. It involves relationships between three clusters: use (demand), knowledge (subject) and librarianship (subject literature), and three action concepts: planning (based on library's priorities), implementation (accessibility of the documents) and evaluation (evaluation in terms of library goals).

The structure of subject literature is a way of seeking relations. It provides understanding of the literary behavior and properties. The behavior is interpreted with reference to 'literary statics' (a point in time) and its 'dynamics (a period of time). The 'statics' is analyzed by bibliometrics (e.g., Bradford's law); the 'properties' refer to knowledge organization (class) and its sequence (order). Literature is further divided into parameters of associated subjects, form (object) and publishers.

The structuralist in the subject literature focuses on understanding its forms, processes, patterns and relationships rather than intellectual and scholarly content of the literary

contents (p.248).

BAWA, N.S., 1965:

The accomplishments in designing ways and means to provide users access cannot continue until a philosophy of librarianship is developed that would stress self-education, freedom and democracy. Systematic philosophy would reveal central theme in an educative process that are sound philosophically, educationally and pragmatically.

BAWDEN, DAVID, 1986:

Creativity is defined as the ability to relate the things or ideas in new relationships by finding appropriate connections and analogies in the context of the already established patterns. Creativity although a very individual quality, is developed within social and organizational framework. It can be assisted by the kind and ways information is provided and handled.

Fundamental in creative processes are the provision and processing of information, with information systems adapted to "the improved representation of data, information and knowledge, so as to aid the recognition, retrieval, and display of analogies, patterns and anomalies in existing knowledge." (p.214).

Also important are the flexibility of the access to the collection, by providing browsing facility, the interdisciplinarity, organization and management of information services and the utilization of information technology.

BAY, J. CHRISTIAN, 1941:

"The idea of knowledge precedes knowledge itself. Any science or art, detached from its philosophy is dilettantism." (p. 150)

Philosophy of librarianship reflects the development of ideal models of library. Scientific idea is an idea expressed philosophically. Library science is the knowledge and skill needed to recognize, collect, organize and utilize printed records in terms of the patron need; collecting rather than accumulating, organizing rather than arranging library material.

Semantics connect linguistics with history of civilization. Knowledge of the meaning of words prevents false analogies, it allows for measuring associations in thoughts and phrases, contributing to the precision in communication.

BEAGLE, DONALD, 1988:

Research ought to be generalizable in the context of one or more theories central to the discipline, providing epistemological definition of information, and metaphysical principle of interrelationships between elements of the total knowledge, applicable to the theory of librarianship.

Library and information science developed in the context of a mechanistic world-view of behavioral sciences. It included Newtonian physics, behaviorist psychology and the computer. This approach may not be applicable today because of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, relativity of space, time and subjectivity of empirical observations.

The mechanistic theory asserts that the world is composed of building blocks (indivisible atomic or sub-atomic particles). New approach views the world in terms of universal flux of its events and processes. The concept of unity or interconnectedness is one of the basic principles of a holistic philosophy. One cannot comprehend any single entity without considering its context or environment taken as a whole.

David Bohm developed a model of the holomovement dealing directly with the fragmentation of research. He proposes a new paradigm of underlying wholeness which he calls 'the implicate order of the holomovement.' In this theory, order is a potential context for theory building in library science. Knowledge is viewed as an organic whole, an ordered growth process comparable to life itself and contradicting entropy. Knowledge growth is a self-ordering process. Entropy, a concept in mechanistic world-view, in its prediction of eventual disintegration of order contradicts library's developmental model, in which order balances entropy. All that entropy says is that everything is placed between the initial maximum and the terminal minimum of energy. Humanity gains leverage over the entropic physics by performing increasingly valuable work with the decreasing amounts of energy; entropic physical universe is balanced by negentropic metaphysical universe of human knowledge.

The distinction between mechanistic and implicate order is illustrated by the concepts of 'volumes' and 'titles'. In mechanistic order, books are considered as individual physical units, but their titles exists in the context of the abstract aggregate, one title citing another, together representing totality of knowledge; while volumes may duplicate the same context only. "Like the organism where each cell contains encoded information about the structure of the whole, each constituent library contains a terminal with access to an encoded representation of the totality of which it forms a part." (p.35)

The wholeness of the flowing movement, according to Bohm cannot be defined explicitly; it can be known only implicitly, from the stable or unstable forms and shapes which can be abstracted from its movement. Knowledge is a process subsumed in a larger flux from which relatively stable shapes and representations can form. It manifests order in which each part grows in the context of the whole, it does not exists independently or 'interact' without itself being affected in such relations.

Holomovement represents a multidimensional reality whose totality is immeasurable and undefinable, because we are part of it. Representation and organization of knowledge in libraries embodies implicate order. "Under the contextual world-view presented here, libraries are not some negentropic aberration from a fundamental law of cosmic disintegration, but rather are an expression of an integrative law of underlying order. That law, that flux, may never be ultimately definable by us (because we ourselves function within it), but certain characteristics like the implicate order may be abstracted from it and seen in a variety of phenomena, including libraries." (p.43).

BEASLEY, K.E., 1974:

The author discusses "political and social forces altering the planning, decision-making and accountability functions; while cooperative movements are admirable, inherent difficulties are formidable." (p.180)

BECKER, B.W., and P.E. CONNOR, 1982:

This study focuses on root causes of reading behavior. It demonstrates the dependence of reading behavior on fundamental determinants of individuals personal values, their attitudes and behavior.

Value is defined as an abstract ideal, positive or negative, not tied to any specific object or situation. The attitudes are personal values reflecting person's belief about ideal conduct. Values are global beliefs, the attitudes are cognitive and affective orientations, personal beliefs manifest one's fundamental values and consequent attitudes. Their impact on reading varies. 1. Heavy book readers focus on achievement-oriented values, less on traditional religious, social or family relations; they are more inner-directed, delaying gratification for accomplishment of distant goals. 2. Male heavy readers possess values that stress competence and concern for accomplishment, women heavy readers are inner-directed and tend toward delayed gratification. 3. Value systems of the sexes are far from identical: heavy readers are more likely female, more educated, within the 30-39 age group. There is no obvious relationship between reading and TV watching, they are not mutually exclusive. 4. Libraries satisfy the needs of readers and encourage greater levels of reading, and should reflect different strategies. (a) Potential heavy readerships depends on 'values clarification' or 'value sensitization'. (b) Light or non-readership suggest changing people's values which may be difficult or morally undesirable. (c) Naive promotional efforts, short-run in duration are highly unlikely to success (e.g., Library Week).

BECKER, HOWARD S., 1965:

Although large public libraries may be equipped to deal with many social problems, they have no role in some of them such as solving social welfare, without transferring library into a different institution.

BECKER, J., 1978:

We are living in a period of stressful times brought on by shifting values, and acceleration of changes. This situation applies to libraries which are affected by eroding tax support and inflationary increases, media competition, information expansion, and commercial involvement in information.

Libraries automate to reduce labor cost, and abandon the self-sufficiency concept by entering into networks interdependence. Continuing advances in computer and communication technology create a quiet revolution by merging and converging with related technologies (e.g., printing, photography). Together they dramatically change information transfer by personalizing the services to the public, improving communication with other libraries and users, and increasing internal productivity.

Libraries are seen as one of the principle nodes in national information system and become links in the network of diversified information and its formats. Stake-holders include authors, researchers, publishers, librarians, documentalists microphotographers, archivists, information brokers, computer specialists, communicators, network specialists, systems and information scientists.

US National Policy has not yet been formulated; it will involve social engineers to introduce the changes in the pluralistic society and to unite all decentralized units.

BEHRENS, SHIRLEY J., 1994:

As an abstract concept information literacy is a metaphor representing "the ability to use information, or possibly the possession of a knowledge of information." (p.309) The term 'information literacy' was introduced by Paul Zurkowski in 1974, who focused on the use and application of located information.

The meaning of the concept changed, reflecting adjustments to the increased need for information. In the 1980s the emphases was on integrating the teaching of information skills with general curriculum. In early 1990s a major educational issue was information literacy involving librarians working in a partnership with teachers.

BEKKER, JOHAN, 1976:

In this dissertation, philosophy is considered in its relations to: (a) professional ethics, and (b) philosophy of librarianship. Library phenomenon must be considered in the context of knowledge. "Knowing something means knowing its relations to something else" (Nitecki, quoted by J. Bekker, 1976, p.168).

Bekker considers philosophy in terms of its (a) comprehensiveness in approaching totality of the ultimate reality in librarianship, (b) by providing conceptual clarification of the terms used, and (c) by developing system of principles guiding library practice.

Philosophy of librarianship is defined as a frame of reference delineating the discipline's scope and unity, by (a) explaining library purpose (the 'why' of Irwin and Broadfield); (b) identifying its functions (as means by Nitecki and Christ), and (c) describing occupational ideals (as guiding principles by Foskett and Benge). The above definitions are considered as three dimensions of one basic approach.

The philosophy of librarianship differs from its policy (it is more fundamental), and from ideology (it is an essence independent of ideology). It is not a theory of librarianship but a part of it (it is all inclusive). Its essential function is to explain and justify the discipline (Caldwell), to clarify its roles (Dalton, Foskett), to search as a base for creativity (Reddy), and as a way to adjust to changes (Shera), by providing relevance (Thompson), and certainty (Wheeler),

Bekker defines 'purpose' as a synonym with an ideal, objective, end, aim, and goal. It denotes the direction and concentration of efforts. And he identifies four basic purposes of the library as educational, informational, research, aesthetic and recreational.

Major library functions (i.e., means toward ends identified by library purposes to collect, organize, preserve, and the physical arrangements, retrieval and dissemination of recorded information) describe library activities but are not its philosophy. Shera defined library function as the maximization of the social utility of graphic records. Bekker's own definition of library basic function is "to optimize the value of recorded information for mankind." (p.147)

Bekker summarized his review of library philosophy by quoting Eastlick: "Every profession should have its philosophers - individuals who can observe the vast panorama of world events and synthesize the stresses and strains, the new and the obsolete, the wise and the foolish, into recognizable patterns." (p. 107).

BELKIN, NICHOLAS, J., 1975:

The author identifies three Soviet approaches to information science. (1) The philosophical approach stresses variety and reflection. Knowing is based on reflection of a given object's variety. Information is a basic property of matter and consciousness ('What information is necessary for the description of some object X?'). (2) The pragmatic methodology defines parameters of informatics by concentrating on specific aspects of information and observing their behavior.('What information is contained in object Y about object X?'). (3) In the semantic approach each information relates to different kind of knowledge. ('What information can object X extract from object Y?')

All three approaches agree that information science (informatics) is a special science aiming at maximizing communication for specific social objectives or purposes. Each approach focuses on different aspect of organization: philosophical on the variety, pragmatic on the system of documentary communication and semantic on the text. Text can be considered as a sign or a message. Informatics addresses not information but metainformation (the distribution and organization of scientific information).

----- 1978:

In the search for a suitable definition of information, the author reviewed a number of printed definitions and identified variety of frameworks used. They included communication systems, philosophical assumptions and pragmatic analysis of information phenomena. Each framework suggests different aspects of information: as a fundamental category of matter, its property, structure or organization; as the probability of occurrence of an event or reduction of related uncertainty; as an event in reading the text, as data in decision-making or communicated information; and as the message itself.

The context of information science can be either methodological (utility of the concept), behavioral (information related phenomena) or definitional (context of the concept).

The author provided three major generalizations. (1) Concepts developed within the context specific for information science were most successful. (2) The concepts that failed did not met the relevance or operational requirements, they did not reconcile the need for prediction with individual-specific effects of information. (3) No definition so far proposed were fully successful; their inefficiencies may be corrected by applying them to specific situations.

Belkin reviewed various contributions to the definition of information science in terms of their specific contexts.

(a) The significance of an information concept: Goffman focused on information related phenomena rather than information itself. Yovits and Otten proposed models of physics, Artandi preferred potential utility, Brooks developed mathematical 'fundamental equation of information science', while Russian theoreticians and Kuhn emphasized the discipline's paradigms,

(b) The requirements of the definition included Gindin's focus on semantics, Wersig's concept of uncertainty and Marzocco's context for information.

(c) Information concepts: Salton, Robertson and Hillman provided analyzes of conditions needed for information retrieval,

(d) Classification of information concepts were proposed in terms of social consideration of information as a commodity (predominantly a Marxists interpretation), or were related to domains of information phenomena (Belkin & Robertson, Rathswohl)

(e) The theory of selective information is represented by Shannon's information as a measure, variously interpreted (such as Artandi's or Belzer semantical interpretation).

(f) General information phenomenon is represented by Otten's notion that information science ought to be a general science of information.

(g) Information as category and as property of matter is evident in Ursul's notion of information as a property of matter and consciousness.

(h) Formal semantic information is provided by Shreider's concept of metainformation as an organizer of semantic information in the text read.

(i) Information was viewed by Pratt as an event in communication; by Wersing as a reducer of uncertainty, by Yovit as a data in decision-making, by Farradane as a surrogate for knowledge, by Thompson as a structure emerging from the event, rather than the event itself, and by Belkin and Robertson as that which transforms structure.

---- 1984:

Information transfer is defined as an interaction between the user (initiator of the transfer), the knowledge resource (text) and the intermediary mechanism (mediator).

The essay concentrates on the intermediary function: "why it is necessary, why it is problematic, what its important features are; how it might be improved." (p. 111)

The main focus of the paper is on understanding the user's needs, expressed in the problems to be solved, goals aimed at, or intentions of the user. The results is a development of cognitive models or images for each component of the information system, their counterparts and themselves.

BELKIN, N.J., and S.E. Robertson, 1976:

Information science is defined as a facilitator of communication between human beings. It is based on two premises: (a) it is a problem-oriented discipline concerned with transfer of information from the initiator to the receiver of communication; (b) all types of information are characterized by change and structure.

Text is defined as "a collection of signs purposefully structured by a sender with the intention of changing the image-structure of a recipient." (p.201)

The proposed concept of information is free from the impact of ethical intentions of the sender and receiver of information, by making an ethical assumption that the receiver always seeks the information that satisfies his needs.

BELKIN, N.J., and A. VICKERY, 1985:

The interaction between the user and intermediary in the information retrieval model is defined as a cooperative human to human goal-oriented dialogue, based on external resources, performed on linguistic and non-linguistic levels.

Philosophy of language stresses the cooperative aspects of conversation and was significantly influenced by J.L. Austin's 'performatives', John Searlye's 'speech act' and Paul Grice's 'conversational implicature' theories. Grice developed the 'cooperative principle' explaining the logic of conversation: "Make your conversation such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." (p.52) The cooperative principle together with the quantity (informative), quality (true contribution), relation (relevant), and manner (perspicuous) categories, clarify the nature of cooperative conservation. (pp. 50-53)

Other approaches in understanding conversation include (a) linguistics (Chomsky's syntax and language competence), (b) linguistic and logic (Lakoff's study of meaning), (c) Sociolinguistics interaction (Hymes's communication behavior in social setting), (d) cognitive psychology (Hollnagel's communication environment), and (e) computational, natural language systems of Grosz, Cohen and Sidner and interactional interpretations of Grice, Gordon, Lakoff, Brooks, and Belkin.

BELL, BERNARD IDDINGS, 1952:

Butler was a scholar in the history of the communication of thoughts and the role of print in it. In his theological approach he went beyond process by focusing on function and value, thus adding meaning to the process itself. The library is a subject of "directional movement under a categorical imperative which cannot be explained away by any argument, naturalistic or idealistic." (p.175). It can be understood only in terms of its services, processes and functions considered together.

BELTH, MARC, 1977:

The author considers a model as an instrument of thinking and as a process of testing, analyzing analogies and reconstructing models for more effective interpretation.

The concept of a model involves: (1) perceived or perceivable objects or events that are (2) considered in terms of a theory or hypotheses; and (3) provide meaning and relationships for those events or objects by observation and logical inference.

-"Nothing in the world is, of itself, a model of anything, or for anything, until it has been deliberately established as such by somebody." (p.57) Models are mental concepts developed for close examination of events they model, aiming at the resolution of empirical and conceptual problems. By themselves, they are not relevant, similar or corresponded to each other, but are a part of an invented perception of completeness. They establish a psychological distance between the perceiver and the object or event perceived, thus avoiding subjective perception or passive reaction to stimulus. A model is not "a logical or mathematical formula devoid of any experiential content. It is deliberately constructed whole of some experienced event that of itself does not show such wholeness or unity." (p.58)

BENGE, R.C., 1957:

Carnegie felt that the responsibility for addressing social distress is the function of the government; libraries should be responsible for the diffusion of knowledge, through which society's cultural welfare could be established.

The 19th century focus on individual's self-development is less relevant because of the availability of general education system. Yet, the contemporary stress on information, disregarding cultural and educational functions of public

library, is equally limited. Any new theory will recognize the library educational, conservational, informational and recreational functions to satisfy individual patrons needs; the distinction lies not "in the type of material collected, nor in the type of libraries which supplies it, but in the purpose for which an item is required at any given time." (p.52)

---- 1970:

The theme of this book is a review of relationship between culture, communication and libraries. In the chapter on philosophy of librarianship, Benge states that as a total systematic structure or system it does not exist by itself. However in a more limited sense, philosophy of librarianship stands for the pursuit of truth, for principles guiding the action, and for theories explaining reality. It is related partly to science (e.g., information retrieval), partly to art (e.g., book selection) and partly to social processes (e.g., ethical, value judgments).

Ranganathan's 'five laws' are considered not as scientific but moral laws or ideas expressing professional principles of conduct or service. They are limited by a lack of social context.

Irwin represents a traditional view of library performing custodial function. L.R.McColvin, Broadfield and Lawrence Clark Powell represent the 19th century's liberal, progressive philosophy of library as a secular missionary in its contribution to popular education and enlightenment. This approach is inadequate, because it does not relate to mass culture.

D.J. Foskett and Ronald Staveley represent the philosophy focusing on the information process itself, overlooking wider social and cultural issues . D.J. Foskett defines library philosophy as professional sets of ideas, Staveley relates it to the fundamental beliefs, defined differently by philosophies of Platonism, pragmatism, logical positivism or Marxism.

Raymond Williams advocates communication as the base of the philosophy, and Shera's social epistemology concentrates on the nature of knowledge and its impact on society, excluding however social values and their impact on knowledge.

Benge concludes that philosophy of librarianship searches for answers to three basic questions: (1) what is knowledge, (2) how it is put to work, and (3) for what purpose? (p.253)

---- 1972:

This book expresses a personal view on communication, discussed in the context of the Third World search for self-identity. The book expresses an attitude rather than a philosophy by attempting to understand what kind of spiritual and material knowledge is available to an individual, and how it impacts on his personal identity.

A gap between appearance and reality is created by a break in cross-cultural communication. The gap is illustrated in library linear classification that cannot be easily adjusted to the changing cultural environment. Similarly, library technical specialization formulates a reductionistic concept of a part as the whole of the profession (e.g., in information retrieval).

The overall focus of the book is on personal human encounter: "the struggle for our own meaning is both necessary and rewarding, and there is always a consolation... that we are alone together." (p.203)

L.Estabrook (1973) in his review of the book points out to the similarity between Shera's epistemology and Benge's focus on the importance of interaction between knowledge and society, and by asking 'what' and 'how' we know about ourselves and others.

---- 1984:

Author questions the purpose in various formulations of library theory. He maintains that new approaches to librarianship did not produced new theories, but mere assertions. The humanistic attitude of the 19th c. librarianship dedicated to the dissemination of knowledge is substituted by new technology's concern about process and function thus obscuring the ends.

Neither technology nor information exists by itself. Both are parts of systems of values, the culturally defined 'ideal' values of life. Informatics should reflect the correspondence with the societal cultural, not merely material, values.

Shera manifested similar misperception by considering his social epistemology as an impact of knowledge on society, overlooking the society's impact on knowledge.

Obstacles to information are not technical but political, social and psychological. Positivism in its doctrine of 'value free' society, concentrates on rational perceptions only.

"The world does not contain information. It is as it is. Information about it is created in the organism through its interaction with the world. To speak about storage of information outside the human body is to fall into a semantic trap." (Illich, 1975, quoted by R.Benge, 1984)

Properly defined information should shift the focus from data to the social interaction as a whole. " The 'retrieval' is social as well as technical and depends on a complex network of forces which need to be more carefully analyzed." (p.219)

BENIGER, JAMES R., 1986:

Control Revolution relates to "a complex of rapid changes in the technological and economic arrangements, by which information is collected, stored, processed, and communicated and through which formal or programmed decisions can effect societal control." (p.427)

It started in 1900 in order to restore lost purposes in political and economic controls in information technology and communication. All activities should be purposeful thus requiring individual and social controls, which in turn depend on the kind of information processing, programming, decision and communication.

In the emerging Information Society increase in the speed of material processing was not caused by computer, but merely augmented by it. (Charles Babbage anticipated computer as a way of increasing the speed of operations).

"The rise of the Information Society itself . . . has exposed the centrality of information processing, communication, and control to all aspects of human society and social behavior." (p.436)

BENJAMIN, PHILIP M., 1962:

Philosophy of book selection is personal, based on the librarian's evaluation of the value of selected material to the reader, and to the philosophy of education sustained by parental institution.

BENNETT, GEORGE E., 1988:

The similarities and differences between the concepts of library and information science are based on hermeneutic theory of interpretation of the content of essays (a 'discourse analysis'). The approach examines motivations of their authors in terms of changing metaphors reflecting changing social environment of librarianship.

Bennett makes a distinction between library theory (approximating scientific research) and philosophy (such as a non-empirical theory of classification). But since the information explosion made the earlier classificatory schemes obsolete, "the conventions of 'science,' 'research,' and 'theory' actually represent the inadequacy of librarianship in academia." (p.114)

BERELSON, BERNARD, 1938:

Impartiality should not be confused with freedom, objectivity and fairness, or with negation of the library responsibility to serve useful social purposes.

There is no virtue in impartiality or partiality themselves. "The question is not whether we should be partial or impartial

. . . but rather what we should be partial to or impartial between." (p.88)

Democracy requires understanding of social changes by apprehending differences between political systems, intelligence and stupidity or prejudice, public welfare and special interest, between reason and force. "Knowledge has social as well as individual utility . . . the library exists not for the sake of the library, but for the sake of society; its activities must therefore be judged in a social frame of reference." (p. 88)

---- 1939:

In response to Fry (1939) criticism of his stand on partiality, Berelson points out that "it is a gross non-sequitor to say that because social science is not an exact science, therefore we cannot 'educate' and 'encourage' and 'teach' and 'act' on the basis of what we do know." (p. 55)

BERGEN, DANIEL P.

Bergen is critical of conceptual approach in library philosophy, preferring instead a contextual focus on environment and on the procedural empirical methodology. He proposes a theoretical bibliographical system, that would redirect library philosophy from metaphorical to empirical approach, bridging formal and informal communication in information transfer. He is critical of idealism of Popper, Kaplan, Shera, Wright and Nitecki and opposes the separation between structure, substance and form (which are timeless) and matter (which is timefull).

His argument is based on the following assumptions. (a) The philosophical function of librarianship is to assist in refutation (falsification) of theoretical propositions by providing material that would refute rather than support the hypothesis. Refutation provides more empirical ground, fewer variables and greater ingenuity to invalidate unproven assumptions. (b) Library provides access to 'claims of knowledge' not to knowledge itself. Knowledge is not an independent entity. (c) Structure should not be divorced from substance, but it should be considered in relation to content.

---- 1962:

College library is often not considered an essential element in the education of students because of an almost total lack of congruence of expectation and performance between the library, faculty, students and administration.

The most important implication for college librarians in understanding their library's ecology is its possible effect upon the decision making process in the governance of the college.

---- 1963a:

Assessment of ecological forces on the library includes cultural and behavioral approaches to social understanding of environment by examining subcultural uniqueness of the library patrons.

The essence of ecological approach is its nonuniversality and its low validity for other than a specific institution in a given time and space. Hence the tendency to imitate the organization of other institutions should be avoided. Being in society but not for society creates an untenable dichotomy. The organizational success of the library should be measured in terms of its function rather than in fulfilling its prior goals.

---- 1963b:

Librarians and teachers belong to different and often mutually exclusive subcultures. The integration between the two groups can be accomplished when teachers and librarians share part of each other responsibility, as proposed by L. Shore in his library-college model.

Librarianship should shift its historical-bibliographic emphasis to social epistemology, which provides not only a systematic study of knowledge and its forms, but also substantial insight into the interaction between knowledge and its users.

Library technical services are dominated by a procedural perspectives focusing on efficiency of output emphasizing goal-attainment functions. Subject specialists are overly conceptual (i.e., ideological). Acquisition and reference librarians are contextual (neutral mediators in acquisition and reference) and are more realistic by emphasizing non-goal-attainment. [Bergen acknowledges Nitecki in this taxonomy.]

Shera maintains that librarianship can benefit from the insight of general systems into the structure, organization, and availability of human knowledge. It can bring order and stability to recorded knowledge. The relationship between the two disciplines is closely related and converges on many points: both are interdisciplinary and concerned about utilization of information by the nervous system, both provide links in communication chain, and both are involved in language, symbolism, abstraction, conceptualization and evaluation. Both are epistemological.

---- 1964:

Bergen rejects the dichotomy between structure and substance. Key in the development of a viable system of access to knowledge is the resolution of a difficult problem of relations between concepts, reality and concepts to concepts.

He maintains that librarianship ought to focus on: (1) concepts, (2) the substance or empirical phenomena explaining the interrelations between concepts, and (3) the nature of the relationships between theory and facts, the abstract and the concrete, the model and what is modeled.

----- 1965:

Historically, the growth of knowledge alternates between (a) empirical investigations of connections between events overlooking special concern for the significance of these events and (b) rational investigation of connections between concepts, without concern for their relations to experience in speculative philosophy and logical-mathematical hypothetico-deductive theories.

Any imbalance between the two approaches is corrected by internal logical equilibrium focusing on holistic approach of general system.

Holistic approach, in contrast to reductionism, implies that the whole is greater than its parts, and that systems, elements and behavior are controlled by processes which are homologous or at least isomorphic.

Major implication of general systems in the theory of librarianship is its organization of knowledge for transmission from one generation to another. Library system in support of general systems is both information and document oriented. It should be (a) an open system flexible to accommodate shifting relations between metatheory and empirically based models, and (b) inductive and deductive, providing information on different systems.

It is important (a) to distinguish between abstracted, empirically determined and conceptual systems, and (b) to identify isomorphic principles of randomness, uncertainty and organized complexity that are evident in social as well as in physical and biological systems. In this sense systems theory creates new information (negative entropy).

Intellectual disciplines always reflect efforts to organize nature, not the nature's structure, thus leading to a distinction between (a) the two structures of knowledge and nature, (b) conceptual and concrete systems, and (c) the concepts of macroscopic (knowledge as a whole) and microscopic (knowledge of particular disciplines) views of the world.

In philosophy and religion the most important archetypes are 'saving of wisdom' and 'spiritual rebirth'. Corresponding notions in science are the concepts of 'themata', the nonverbalized yet continuous aspects of scientific theory; which are unverifiable and unfalsifiable. (e.g., conservation of energy).

There is a functional parallelism between themata and archetypes, and general systems theory can provide isomorphism between the two concepts by organizing reality as perceived by both the humanist and the scientist.

A procognitive system of Licklider in human cognition relates recorded information to the cognitive structure (a map) of an individual allowing for a computer linkage between a large random access storage capacity, teaching machine and the sources of knowledge generation.

Here conceptual and factual knowledge would replace the physical artifacts (documents). A library system is document-oriented for humanists and social scientists, and an information subsystem of evaluating, storing and retrieving information for other scientists.

General system principles could serve as organizers in the procognitive system by linking human cognition with computer structure and as specifiers of various knowledge relationships.

The major difficulty in the system theory is the 'fallacy of misplaced concreteness', the confusion of invisible, theoretical entities with concrete, observable ones. Hence, the systems may be looked as a set of physical or conceptual entities that are mutually interrelated.

---- 1967:

The theoretical debate within librarianship is between the Baconian approach of inductive empiricism and the deductive theorizing. The range of bibliographic sources extends from broad literature coverage and low information (e.g., comprehensive indexes focusing on location) to limited literature coverage and high density information (e.g., specific information focusing on its consumption). The amount of information an inquirer brings into the search determines which of the two ends of the continuum will be more useful.

Each discipline should have: (1) deductive philosophers, not preoccupied with empirical correlates of their thoughts; (2) empirical generalizers searching for laws of empirical inquiries; and (3) raw empiricists to gather raw facts and not overly concerned with the conceptual contexts.

---- 1971:

The fundamental purpose of the library is to enhance communication between authors and readers. The problem is the audience's heterogeneous approach to information, ranging from extreme abstractionism to factual concreteness. Hence there is a need for better understanding of the collective psychology of the patrons, the impact of technology of communication, and the cultural unconsciousness of the unexamined assumptions.

---- 1978:

Conversion of information into knowledge is a condition of system effectiveness in which each document is studied within the universe of all other documents on the same subjects, weighed, assigned status and provided with a position within the existing cannons of scientific knowledge.

The adequately revealing statement assigned to a given document includes ideology governing a document (e.g., Marxist), its perspectives (e.g., conflict or consensus), its school of thought (e.g., Hayekian economics), and its methodology (e.g., synthetic or analytical).

Abstracting services are of value for providing information, not for their referential potential. Encyclopedia articles, state of art reviews, catalogs, indexing, abstracting and bibliographies are not by themselves sufficient for providing adequately revealing statements, they do however provide specific items of information.

---- 1980:

Bergen discusses three objections to J.Z. Nitecki's model of metalibrarianship: two dealing with infrastructure and one with superstructure.

(1) Infrastructure of formal relations: knowledge cannot exist independent of minds and records; (Knowledge is of a different genus than book and/or user.)

(2) Metaphors are self-confirming (they codify observation so decisively that they become self-confirming).

(3) Superstructure: Bergen reservations are four-fold:

(a) The three metaphors do not embrace the totality of librarianship. According to Bergen, procedural (Pd) and contextual level (Cx) refer to the present, while conceptual (Co) to the future. As metaphor and counter-metaphors Pd and Cx cannot be separated, and considered independently of psychological impact on the relationships between the patron, information carrier and its content.

(b) The model is too complex: it appears to be more a product of accretion than design. He would prefer to reduce the relationships to the book and the user, and "would recognize proceduralism, contextualism and conceptualism into a more unified metaphoric tool in which proceduralism and contextualism interact closely as metaphor and counter-metaphor and in which the effectiveness of conceptualism, as it looks to the future, is directly contingent upon the sophistication of that interaction." (p.13)

(c) The model manifest some 'jerkiness' and 'disconnectedness' begging for 'tightening an synthesis' . . . "somehow the center does not hold." (p.14)

(d)) Bergen compares Nitecki's epistemology (introduced in 1964) to that of Popper's model (1964, 1972). Popper's material, physical world is similar to Nitecki's generic book; mental, psychological world (observations, thoughts and feelings) is similar to user; and abstract product of mind, the world of theories, is similar to knowledge. [N.b. Nitecki disagrees. This is a wrong comparison; Popper's physical world is similar to Nitecki's proceduralism (Pd), mental world to contextualism (Cx) and abstract world to conceptualism (Co)]

Popper's world of mental products and Nitecki's concept of knowledge are the main issue of disagreement. Bergen feels that the modern trend is toward dualism (e.g., Chomsky's dyadic linguistic model), and that knowledge can not endure independently of our minds and records and that other mental products, however abstract are contingent rather than autonomous. His criticism is addressed in full in Nitecki's more recent essay. (1993)

---- 1981:

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that in a successful theory ideas and matter are interrelated, they are less monolithically idealistic and more pluralistic.

Bergen criticized various contributors to philosophy of librarianship for their platonic approach.

Abraham Kaplan notion that both philosophy and librarianship focus on structure rather than substance, and on form rather than content is seen by Bergen as a metaphysical approach opposing the pragmatism of library practitioners.

C.H. Rawski shares the same focus on form at the expense of substance. J.Z. Nitecki's pluralism of three metaphors of proceduralism, contextualism and conceptualism is criticized for idealizing the concept of 'knowledge'. C.H. Wright's metaphysical approach, detaches theory from library practice. And A.Fairthorn's concept of library philosophy, similarly to mathematical symbols, is free from the substance.

Shera in his social epistemology interrelates idealism with empiricism. In his idealism, knowledge conditions matter, his empiricism stresses the importance of social effects of knowledge, but both are subject to the ideological interpretation.

Bergen agrees with Butler's call for 'objective realism' that includes empirical investigations of sociological, psychological and historical aspects of librarianship.

In effect, he does not oppose idealism, but argues against its dominance in the philosophy of librarianship.

Bergen concludes that the future theory of librarianship will not be confirmable but refutable. It will include material as well as conceptual approaches, Aristotelean as well as Platonic viewpoints, including both theories of facts and of values.

---- 1984:

Bergen maintains that librarians and information scientists provide access to claims to knowledge rather than to knowledge itself. Claim to knowledge is a claim to truth (P.Wilson), thus involving reference to reason, to the evidence of the senses, to rational and empirical reasoning, to a definition, or to an individual's report on his inner state.

Dissociated from the term "claim," knowledge refers to subjective and personal knowledge which may be true or false. He recommends Wilson's concept of skepticism, of neither accepting or rejecting the possibility of knowledge.

Bergen discusses four interpretations of claims to knowledge: (1) inductive, (2) hypothetical, (3) definitional, and (4) introspective.

(1) Induction is an assertion that the future will resemble the past, its base is psychological, not logical. It appears incapable of vindication, although statistically it may be partly justified.

(2) Hypothetical approach is based on its falsifiability; more verifiable hypotheses will replace the less defendable. Bergen does not reject the idea of falsification in principle, but questions its practical application, since we don't know when the process itself is completed. Scientists hold on to a theory not because it is falsifiable, but because it offers plausible explanation.

(3) Definitional search for truth is unsatisfactory because there are no objective facts or truths, only assertions. Facts are ethnocentric products of time and cultural outgrowth of definitions.

(4) Introspective approach relates to consciousness. It is linguistically structured and possibly unconsciously motivated. Such motivation can not be inferred from outward behavior.

Since last century, American librarians accepted representational realism maintaining that the world is independent of mind. Here 'informing' means 'a process of in-forming,' i.e., 'forming' a passive mind, by changing or reinforcing mental images. Pratt calls it 'emmorphosis'.

Bergen ends his essay with an inconclusive suggestion that librarians "should devote less time to designing and refining system of access . . . and more time to other projects." But he does not specify what kinds of projects. (p.22)

---- 1987:

Bergen criticizes Harris dogmatic approach to philosophy of librarianship and calls for a non-partisan approach to ideologies. Harris's major defect, according to Bergen, is his arrogance of thinking that he knows the best.

Harris' critique of librarianship, according to Bergen, is rooted in Marxism's attempts to demythologize librarianship. His main problem is his Gnosticism: Harris is convinced that he is privy to the Truth about library services denied to those who do not accept his Hegelian, idealistic Marxism philosophy.

Harris maintains that American librarians are addicted to the idea that society is pluralistic and captive of positivist epistemology, based on empirical testing of formal hypotheses rather than the pragmatics of trial and error.

The pluralism explains librarians neutrality toward different group interests, and its positivist epistemology accounts for apolitical and value neutral approach justified by the notion of intellectual freedom.

Positivism results in a trivial research in librarianship, and with pluralism it allows for development of many small ideas (I.Berlin's' foxes') while Hegelian Marxists concentrates on big concepts and large ideas ('hedgehogs'). Harris maintains that Hegelian Marxism must replace pluralism-positivism.

BERNATOWICZ, K., 1987:

The essay reviews terminological confusion about information use and its impact on research. Information activities are defined as sets of information processing, collecting, storing and retrieving, aiming at accumulation of cultural accomplishments for social and economic purposes. Information needs are perceived as natural, socially motivated, functions. The need may be created by desire to learn, or to accomplish certain goals.

Empirical, sociological and psychological studies of information needs can be divided into two major categories: (a) where does the information come from, where it is needed and for what purposes, and (b) in what way and to what extend can the demand of users be satisfied.

Psychologist divide 'need' into: physiological, emotional and cognitive. They are characterized as follow: (1) The demand for information is determined by social roles and needs. Information is of instrumental value in accomplishing one's goals. (2) The value of information depends on its applicability, accessibility and social factors that create needs. (3) The essence of information is 'seeking information to satisfy needs' (Wilson, 1981). (4) Sociological approach stresses the importance of cultural-social-personal system which affect users behavior more than their needs for information itself. (5) Ethical values and norms must be socially acceptable. (6) Social needs include: affiliation, communication, organization, emotional ties, conformity, socialization, social applicability, appraisal, acceptance, participation, protection and autonomy of individuals. (7) The types of users are potential, expected, present and beneficial. (8) Demands for information can be shaped by information supply for specific information to satisfy a demand.

Research methodology should address the following issues: (1) not why one uses information but what is the need for it; (2) the need should be studied as a willingness to learn about world and about social advantages of having information; (3) where information come from; (4) how a demand for information can be satisfied and (5) the shift from studying information sources to information role in the life of a user.

BERNIER, CHARLES L., 1985:

Ethics is defined as a science of survival. It is determined by experience, experiments and measurements. It is a Unitarian definition stressing usefulness of desirable behavior by distinguishing between facts and fiction. Ignorance is dangerous for an individual as well as for a society, since it puts one at the mercy of an unethical individual or of the organizations who know, what that individual does not know.

Because of increased specialization there is an ethical need for cooperation, as an option for survival. "Information science and scientists are seen to be ethical by promoting survival through the use of knowledge." (p. 212)

BERNINGHOUSE, DAVID K., 1972a

The proposed philosophy of librarianship requires involvement of librarians in social issues, providing access to all viewpoints. Intellectual freedom demands full access to all facts and theories in order to find best solutions to problems. It should take a precedent over any other principles. The resolution of a dilemma between the role of advocacy and neutrality on social issues will determine future philosophy of librarianship.

---- 1972b:

The social responsibilities and authoritarian roles of mass media in the Twentieth century emerged from: (1) Authoritarian approach of 16th-17th century of absolute power; (2) Libertarian view of 18th-19th century rationalism and natural rights. Social responsibility view aims at provoking discussion on conflicting issues, as a part of the self-righting process of truth and free exchange of ideas. The authoritarian view supports totalitarian system by surveillance and obedience.

In totalitarian states librarianship is a part of communications systems to 'educate' people. In Western democracies libertarian theory of press based on philosophies of Milton, Locke and Mill calls for dedication to truth through objective reporting. Individual cannot survive without some understanding of reality.

The author points to the antithesis between social responsibility of librarianship and the Library Bill of Rights, with library press taking side of social responsibility view.

BERRY, JOHN, J.,1973:

We often rewrite library history to justify contemporary goals. 19th century goals of liberal education to assimilate new emigrants, were changed into new library social services such as outreach program, prevention of illiteracy or racism, by provision of information. Changing goals are justified by historical precedents, although most of them are the results of contemporary social pressures for change.

---- 1977a:

Library profession defined as teaching patrons the use of library tools in solving their own problems contradicts the insistence of having exclusive professional knowledge to assist patrons in that use.

Berry suggests that librarians should abandon the status-seeking drive for professionalism, and instead focus on acquiring, organizing and providing the material, teaching others how to use the library (i.e., be their own librarians), and allow paraprofessionals to assist the patrons in the use of library resources.

---- 1979:

Objectives of public library are directly related to the objectives of the society. Quoting Shera, Berry states that the institution such as family or state determine the pattern of society; and the agencies such as school, library or museum are determined by that pattern. Public library always provided one-to-one service, organizing all knowledge for single individuals. This is a unique role, all other agencies serve the public, not an individual.

---- 1981:

This is a discussion of two conflicting models in librarianship: (a) marketing ideology focusing on information as a commodity, and on the techniques for providing information products; (Wasserman, Pauline Wilson) and (b) self-reliance of individuals, reducing their dependence on market system (Toffler, Illich).

---- 1982:

Shera's basic message was to bring man and book together for the benefit of individuals and through them of society. Noted also were Shera's positions on research (often reinventing the wheels), on profession (call for patience), on specialization (based on synthesis of librarianship), and on the future (anticipating unified theory of librarianship).

New technology, economics and resulting social changes jeopardize fundamental American rights to information. The conflict between information producer and consumer over copyright, the control of the information's 'distribution chains' by publishing and media industry call for philosophical and organizational tools to fight for societal control of databases and communication channels. Professional information is interwoven with politics. There is a need for new philosophical base in librarianship to defend intellectual freedom.

---- 1987a:

Attempts to replace the terms 'library' or 'librarian' by terms such as 'manager' or 'specialist', weaken librarian's self-identity, and overlooks library role in society. It is unfortunate that this trend takes place at the time when the need for providing information to individual is greatly increased.

---- 1987b:

Ethics was a predominant topic of the 5Oth annual conference of ASIS. Its major conclusions included: (1) technology is not ethically neutral; (2) information as science calls for its quantification with dollar value; (3) value of information itself is subjective, depending on situation; (4) emergence of a conflict between commodity and property right of information; (5) new technology doesn't replace libraries but add to their dependence on networks.

---- (1987c):

Berry asks the question, "why does dr. Boorstin bash librarians to support literacy?" The probable answer may include Boorstin's reaction to the librarians demand that the Library of Congress should be lead by professional librarian and partly because of his view on new technology impact on illiteracy in USA. According to Boorstin, librarians embraced new technology because it adds to their professional status, freeing library science from its stereotype of 'the gentle Samaritan.' Berry objects to this condescending view.

BERTHOLD, ARTHUR, 1933:

Berthold stresses the importance of professional philosophy of librarianship which would include definition of aims, formulation of relationships with other disciplines and creation of scientific basis for library theory.

BESTERMAN, T., 1946:

Library technique must be based on understanding library purpose. The aim of book selection theory based on the effect of reading is a dangerous didactic philosophy of librarianship, since it will limits itself to the wants of readers, deliberately encouraged by libraries.

BEVIS, DOROTHY, 1963:

Demands for library services change with times and result in changing the content of library collection and methods of its processing, mirroring the needs of the society served. However, the principles of the library remain the same throughout the history of librarianship: to make ideas accessible, to provide "'windows' that set free our 'horizons.'" (p.47)

BIERBAUM, E. A., 1990.

The author suggests the 'Least Effort' concept as a unifying principle in library research and practice. This principle is based on the assumption that librarianship is the only profession that conjoins persons and their information seeking behavior.

The Principle of Least Effort was defined by George Zipf (1949) as "meaning that each individual will adopt a course of action that will involve the expenditure of the probably least average of his work." (p. 18)

This principle was applied in the field by others: (a) e.g., Mooers' Law that "'an information retrieval system will tend not to be used whenever it is more painful and troublesome for a customer to have information than for him not to have it"; (b) Cutter's notion of the convenience of the reader; or (c) Ranganathan's law 'save the time of the reader'.

The adoption of the principle of Least Effort requires a shift in library paradigm. (a) Matheson anticipated total restructuring of the field based on its processes. (b) Cochrane found that majority of searches are limited to topical subject search. (c) Newtonian deterministic description of human behavior follows the principle of Least Effort by introducing concepts such as quantum mechanics in science, or a holistic view of a person in psychology.

BIERI, JAMES 1971:

Cognitive structures, the relatively fixed patterns for experiencing the world, provide a sense of order, meaning, and structure in understanding the events around us. Stimulus for information transformation mediates any antecedent-consequent relation in behavior. This is a major difference between cognitive theories, emphasizing information processing and learning theories based on concept of habit in behavioral learning. Cognitive theorist defines the objective stimulus in terms of its subjective experience. The structure of transformation itself is the content of learning, and not just a series of responses determined by habits and drives. The cognitive processes include selection, organization, moderation, control of motives, and adaptation to constraints.

Among various theories:

(a) Psychoanalytical theories in learning propose that the ego structures, both primary and secondary, are inherited or given in a personality and represent the functions of sensation, perception and memory.

(b) The field theory emphasizes organism's cognitive representation of the psychological environment as a key mediational variable in behavior.(e.g., gestalt stresses the organized nature of perceptions).

(c) The schema theories are concerned with learning of 'schemata', organized models of ourselves which modify the impression produced by incoming sensory impulses. Schemata are constructive by elaborating on past experiences, and they contribute toward development of attitudes. Schemata are learned, constantly changing through progressive differentiation.

(d) Cognitive Personality theories are based on the concept of organized neural structures, reflecting different states of consciousness. 'Self' theories based on self concept of individual as an organizing factor have both cognitive and motivational properties, while personal construct theories maintain that behavior is channeled by cognitive structures organized within person's overall system.

Cognitive controls are the cognitive structures that modulate drives, by steering goal-oriented behavior into appropriate channel determined by a given situation. Individuals differentiate their environment by separating themselves from it.

Central is the ability of an individual to identify the behavior of others in the processing of information about the social world. Information theory may be used either as a method of analysis or as a structure itself.

BINWAL, C., 1992:

Social knowledge and information are synonymous concepts in Ranganathan's definition of subjects. Since the subjects constantly change, there is a need for continuous modification of their structure, affecting their relevance and functions in information retrieval.

BIRDSALL, WILLIAM F., 1982:

The desire for professional status resulted in failing to define the purposes of the profession itself. This lead to the present deprofessionalization of librarianship: "clients are more self-reliant, depending less on professionals whose occupational structure is based on the monopolization of a specific social service and the knowledge upon which it is based ... (suggesting) an emergence of a self-service society requiring a new kind of professional, professional that helps the client become more self-sufficient." (p.225) This requirement differs from that of a physician who uses his knowledge to help the client without however sharing that knowledge with him and requiring the client to return to the doctor for future assistance.

Birdsall suggests that librarians (1) must be sensitive to needs of a variety of clients; (2) assure full free access to knowledge, resisting censorship and monopolization of information by private sector; (3) advocate patron's self-sufficiency; (4) reject professional models that limits their role in society, and cooperate with other information agencies in providing services to clients.

---- 1985:

Public library services to both the community and individuals without reconciling the differences between them resulted in ambiguity and confusion. The problem is in assuming that the needs of these two constituencies are the same. The abstract notion that society's values transcend those of local community led to the concept of individual freedom, and library encouraging "an individualism fostered by national social and cultural norms at the expense of local values and relations." (p.23) Library's function is to bridge the two approaches by understanding the value system of both.

---- 1988:

In late 19th century library political affiliation was discouraged. The concept of neutrality was extended to early 20th century, although a Progressive Librarian Council and a Liberal Library League were formed during highly politicized 1930s. The controversy between the two approaches had little direct effect on the profession; library services remained least ideological.

In 1960 liberal librarians identified themselves as social, not political, activist. Others, focused on rational techniques based on knowledge sustained by scientific mode of inquiry, and continued to reinforce library apolitical stand.

Both American liberals and conservatives related to Mill's liberal philosophy. However different writers identified different kinds of liberalism. Idealists stressed liberty, privacy, and property, rights; realists focused on power, and law; while minimalists advocated tolerance, mediation and pluralism.

Both conservatists and liberals criticized the focus on individualism as weakening the sense of community. Conservatists argued for hierarchy, family and tradition, while liberals focused on collective action.

In librarianship most important philosophical premises are: (a) individualism, personal liberty, intellectual freedom; (b) self-fulfillment and intellectual growth, promotion of reading as means of self-improvement, and (c) free flow of ideas and the opposition to censorship with library embracing the concept of utility of information. -

Library is criticized by conservatists for liberal promotion of intellectual freedom, and for maintaining conservative middle class values by liberals. New ideologies such as Neo-Liberalism, Welfare Conservatism, feminism or environmentalists further impacted on library ideology.

The ethical options for librarians are either (a) to join 'high-tech liberals' of the information society, accepting the tenets of information as commodity, with librarians becoming a professional elite of information brokers marketing library services, or (b) continue to be conservators of community cultural heritage, maintaining 19th century's social goals formulated by elite segments of the society, to maintain a status quo, thus failing to define their professional purposes.

The alignment of ideals with pragmatic issues lead, to a confusion of objectives, creating a paradoxical tenets of political involvement in social activities and neutrality on political issues.

BISHOP, DAVID, 1976:

Tendency to uniformity by following cost-effective practices or by sharing similar core collections, create conceptual problems since each library attends to the needs of different clientele. In the past, libraries served only an elite, in Jeffersonian America services were extended to workingmen, today the gap between technical and general humanistic libraries continues to grow. The diversity is needed to serve particular clients more effectively, the unity is necessary by the

interdependence of all agencies in advancing all learning. The provision of information should satisfy both the diversity of needs and unity of interrelated knowledge, by developing collections and services relevant to the library patrons at large and by individualized packaging of information for specific patrons.

BISHOP, WILLIAM WARNER, 1919:

In 1919 librarianship experienced a crises created by a conflict between quality and quantity of collections based on librarians knowledge of what is good service and what are the increased demands for services beyond librarians capacities. This created a danger of mediocre service by duplicating collections in branches, and collecting 'trash' books. "The book-using art is bound to grow, and our failure or success in leading and directing its growth is going to be the measure of our ability to rise to our opportunities." (p.9)

_BLACK, ALISTAIR 1991:

The modern concept of the 'public library' emerged from (a) the utilitarian attempt to replace the elitism of the 19th century by focusing on the welfare of many, and from (b) the idealistic believe in the values held by the whole society in supporting the free library.

Utilitarianism originated with Jereme Bentham and David Hume who focused on utility. John Stuart Mill expanded the notion of pleasure from the egoistic pleasure-seeking to the notion of 'higher' pleasure for the whole society, requiring altruism and society's support of public library services.

Utilitarian empiricism stresses a posteriori acquisition of knowledge through experience, and idealists emphasizes an innate, a priori qualities, reflecting ethical distinctions between utilitarian teleological, beneficial end-results of library services and idealistic deontological moral absolutes in satisfying information needs through free access to books. The self-realization concept of idealism is based on a metaphysical meaning of perfection. Both philosophies advocate good citizenship, social harmony and equality of opportunities.

BLACK, WILLIAM K. and JOAN M. LEYSEN, 1994:

Librarians are considered academicians that participate in the educational goals of their institutions, by advancing learning and research through the provision of information services. The library scholarship consists of original and secondary research, evaluation of the scholarly works of others, development of creative activities (computer software and bibliographic instructions), and complementary research (exhibits, position papers, etc.).

BLACKBURN, ROBERT, 1968:

College libraries are failure because of competing objectives of the teaching faculty and librarians: (a) teachers want to posses books, librarians own them, (b) teachers are jealous of librarians' knowledge of the publishing market and for selecting and ordering books; (c) Librarians access to the students is limited by teachers control of what they should read; (d) teachers are disorderly, librarians stress order, efficiency, economy and preciseness; (e) books in the library are threatening if they do not agree with the teachers' viewpoint; (f) different status of librarians and teachers is reflected in different working environment, salaries and status.

The solution is to bring the bookstore to the library, allowing teachers and students to order books for themselves (in addition to books in the library) from the copies displayed in the library. This approach would bring teachers, librarians and students together with the books and their content, allowing librarians to buy, lend, reproduce and facilitate personal purchases of books, avoiding personality conflicts and encouraging 'love of books.'

BLAKE, FAY M., 1971:

Major social responsibilities of academic librarianship include an understanding the process of scholarship, how and what people want to learn, and how to discriminate between different scholarly works. Librarians must become politicians by utilizing campus power, and by having direct contact with the library constituency. Most important however, is the understanding that library exists to facilitate communication between people through books.

BLAKE, FAY M., and E.L. PERLMUTTER, 1977:

The function of librarians as information handlers is based on one to one relationship between librarians and library users. This function does not lend itself to mechanization or improved productivity.

Business cost-recovery philosophy contradicts libraries' free service philosophy. The online service may reduce the disparity between 'have-and-have not" access to information, but the fee-for all services will increase that disparity in terms of economic ability to pay for the access to information.

"If we do not guard against imbalance . . . [between the two approaches], we shall be faced with the paradox: the wealthier our nation becomes, the more impoverished will be our free public service." (p. 2008)

BLAKE, M.L., 1985:

There is a need for a policy on information that reflects the new information age. We are witnessing a converse of Darvinian evolution: a "cultural evolution in space through competition for time." (p.125) In it, fitness depends on information technology. It is reflected in the brain evolution into two spheres: space processing right sphere and time processing, left sphere.

Librarianship is space-focused (e.g., classification is based on holistic pattern recognition in time-fixed knowledge), while information science is time-dominated (e.g., time shared on-line access to time changing information).

Taxation as the social control of the use of space has a long history, but the taxation of the use of time, available to the information-reach only, is less taxed.

BLANKE, H.T., 1989:

Contemporary social scientists view themselves as 'value-free' professionals; librarians embraced this political neutrality to enhance their professional status, at the risk of being dominated by other political and economic powers.

The profession must define its values in political terms, by cultivating the sense of social responsibility to provide free and equal access to information.

Today, corporate capitalism, responding to the erosion of its global power, endorses libraries' preoccupation with technology; the patron becomes the client and the librarian information broker. Innovation and efficiency in processing information become a marketable commodity, overriding the importance of equity of public service. Overall strategy is to encourage private enterprises to 'add value' to government information, i.e., to repackage it for profit. Concept of value-neutrality creates a vacuum that can be filled by prevailing political and economic ethos, endangering the fundamental ideals of free and equal access to information.

"Without a clear and vital set of philosophical and political ideals acting as a guiding beacon, the library profession will not remain neutral, but will drift aimlessly with the currents of power and privilege." (p. 42)

BLASINGAME, RALPH and MARY JO LYNCH, 1976:

Traditional librarians' responsibility is to acquire, organize and provide access to collections of documents relevant to patron needs. The responsibility for providing other resources is considered secondary and has low managerial priority. If that responsibility is limited to the provision of access to the total available store of information only, the distinctions between the 'own' and 'other' resources disappear, implying an important change in the philosophy and values of librarianship.

BLISS HENRY EVELYN:

Bliss called for special social and educational philosophy of librarianship, studied by scientific method and consistent with ethical motives (P. Peirce, 1951). He is criticized by A. Broadfield for not believing in an individual, for endorsing sociological theories of group personality, and social righteousness and for confusing natural order of science with order of natural science. (A. Broadfield. 1949)

---- 1935:

The author interpreted Danton's call for philosophy of librarianship as relating to special philosophies such as philosophy of education, of sociology, of science or psychology.

Librarianship lacks satisfactory definitions of valid principles of belief, purpose, method, and conduct concerning

knowledge, science, philosophy and ethics; but -it provides generalized "verified conclusions, validified by a consensus, not mere conjectures, nor bald traditions." (p.234)

BOARDMAN, EDNA M., 1988:

The author stresses the importance of knowing how and to whom librarians promote themselves. The school library is integral to the school if it provides material necessary for teaching; but if it makes available just a leisure reading or occasional facts, its services are supplementary to school's curriculum. The author advocates a strategy of positioning, 'thinking in reverse', by focusing not on what librarians think they are, but how their role is perceived by others. "If we can address the real concerns of our public; if we can establish our services as integral parts of secondary education; if we can improve our position in the public eye; then the resulting improvement in public support will ensure that we flourish." (p.17)

BOAZ, MARTHA, 1972:

Librarians are not only catalogers, reference librarians or bibliographers, but primarily humanists and people-oriented communicators knowing the contents of their book. Library education should be more concerned about ideas and communication than about facts and contents.

BOHNERT, LEA M., 1974:

Fairthorne's theory of notification clarifies the foundations of information science. He defined 'notification' as 'mention and delivery of recorded messages to users', listing as the main elements of library operations: (1) Source (e.g., authors), (2) Code (e.g., language of a book), (3) Message (the signal), (4) Channel (e.g., microfilms), (5) Destination (e.g., reader) and (6) Designation (subject description).

The first five concepts describe Shannon's theory of communication, the sixth, 'Designation', adds meaning to the communication in library theory. The elements grouped in triads describe twenty major library activities. Triadic arrangement describes relationships between the two elements and their impact on the third element.

Shannon's Code-message-channel triad is a 'black box' of signaling (e.g., printing), while source-designation-destination is the librarian 'black box' of discourse, that is, librarians are not concerned with the subject of discourse as such but with the reasons for which it is requested by patrons.

---- 1989:

The author maintains that both library and information science are the same disciplines. Library science and its classification and subject headings are the foundations of information science, and the name 'information retrieval' is a better description of the nature of information science.

BOLGIANO, CHRISTINA, 1982:

Major function of the didactic art is to relate people to their environment within a context of a systems hierarchy of values; it is a shift from the object-oriented to systems oriented culture. "Here change emanates not from things, but from the way things are done." (p.289) Systems science is becoming an interdisciplinary field of knowledge in a unified theory of universal processes. "It is fundamental to the philosophy of systems that the never-ending spirals of systems interactions be recognized." (Ibid).

Among the characteristics of the systems are: (a) synergy (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts) coordinates different functions in libraries, (b) systems have a life of their own, adjusting to the changing environment, such as the development of internal procedures within each library operation (c) systems analysis, define activities in terms of all influencing factors, often changing traditional patterns of library management, (d) integration of functions that reduce duplication of library processes, and (e) networking, organizing individual systems into a supersystem, such as OCLC.

As a system, library is a complex of relations between people and information processes, within a larger social, economic and political systems.

Systems are not synonyms for computers; in librarianship they are communication system of ideas interrelated with an operational system using computers in its physical processes.

In the systems approach information is essential; it is communicated by libraries, which "as the medium for organization and transfer of information are society's work of art." (p.291)

BOLL, JOHN J., 1972:

Library education reflected five major approaches to the core courses, based on the following theories: (1) 'The one profession in one year': the focus is on the unity of the profession at the expense of specialization within it. (2) 'Maximum flexibility in one year': the approach minimizes the importance of core course. (3) The 'changed emphasis': replaces some core courses by specialization. (4) The 'growing single profession': expands the length of study. (5) The 'structured or several subprofessions': focuses on specialization with core courses developed for each subdiscipline.

The present core contains only few philosophical concepts. "Curriculum revision must begin with a statement that forms the philosophy and rationale for change." (p.197)

The author notes that the similarities between different library subdivisions are philosophical and conceptual, while the differences between them are practical. Librarianship might be considered for practical and philosophical reasons "a cluster of four or five interlocking subprofessions." (p.209)

BONK, W.J., 1956:

The public library as a social institution has its purposes determined by the society. However society itself is not a static institution, hence the statements of library purposes formulated in the past may not be relevant today.

In democracy individual thoughts and minority opinions must be protected; in the equalitarian society the stress is on uniformity at the expense of individual freedom.

Since the book has a great impact on the mind of an individual, the librarian must choose between preservation and obliteration of independent thinking, thus considering the library as an active or passive institution.

BONN, GEORGE S., and SYLVIA FAIBISOFF, 1976:

Papers in this collection discuss major causes of change: the government, economic conditions, science and technology; and possible impact of change on three vital areas: humanities, education and social institutions.

Shera called for librarians to be not only the memory of the society, but also the communicators of knowledge by providing information to all its users (library elite). R.L. Carroll noted the growing interest in intuitive knowledge, in the manipulation of words, symbols, and in the problems of value. J. McDonald predicted "a major shift in the needs of universities, a deemphasis of doctoral programs, and a shift toward in-service training . . . [with] information viewed as a national resource."

H. Lopata examined social change for social institutions "noting the evolution from a relatively stable, urban and industrial world to a postindustrial middle-class society exhibiting growing duress and the breakup of the family unit." Shields indicated a need for librarianship to be reduced to humanism; "to say that libraries are solely institutions of education or recreation is to misapply what society asks of librarians." D. Ely maintained that both individuals and institutions should participate in change "in helping to create the future rather than to be shaped by it." (pp.vii-x)

BOON, J.A., 1991:

The General Systems of Bertalanffy is a scientific approach that varies from the atomistic and mechanistic views of science by examining reality as a whole, not each of its aspects separately. The approach influenced library management and organization of knowledge.

BOORSTIN, DANIEL J., 1980:

Equating library services with information services may imply that knowledge is equated with information. However, knowledge is orderly and cumulative, while information is random and miscellaneous. In terms of Gresham's law, information drives knowledge out of circulation, displacing the established, cumulative knowledge by recent, most problematic. "The latest information on anything and everything is collected, diffused, received, stored, and retrieved before anyone can discover whether the facts have meaning." (p.3) Libraries have two paradoxical and conflicting roles, as repositories of information, and as a refuge from information and misinformation. Information is provided to us as a service, but we must also be able to acquire knowledge for ourselves. "We expect to be entertained, and also to be informed. But we cannot be knowledged!." (p. 6)

---- 1982a:

The book endures, information becomes obsolete; books are cumulative, adding new knowledge to old, while new information displaces old; the book has the focus, information is about everything; books build tradition, information makes us "well-informed, but woefully ignorant." (p. 56)

---- 1982b:

Reading is not a skill but an experience, a part of the whole American experience. Three knowledge related biases are: (1) 'The bias of presentism', the learning is based on immediacy; by the time something is printed it is already obsolete or false. (2) 'The bias of publicity', private communications are often publicized. (3) 'The bias of statistics', we know the quantity but not the quality of reading. The library is 'a symbol of the privacy essential to a free people." (p. 11) Reading provides a refuge from all these biases by allowing readers to be at home with themselves.

BORDEN, ARNOLD K., 1931:

Usually philosophy follows discovery of facts, evaluating their meaning, significance and value. It interprets various relations within the whole experience.

Librarianship as a science must examine experimentally discovered facts, and as an educational institution, it must address philosophical reasons for performing that function.

The main role of the library is to conserve and interpret knowledge. The relationship between these two roles is often confused because of a lack of philosophical understanding of bibliographic resources. The development of research in librarianship makes a philosophy indispensable in asking pertinent questions. "The mere doing of the research may yield something in the way of training and technique, but the conclusions will sound hollow without a philosophy to back them up." (p.176)

BORKO, HAROLD, 1968:

Information science "investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability." (p.3) It is concerned with the "organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information . . . (and its) representations in both natural and artificial systems, the use of codes for efficient message transmission, and the study of information processing devices and techniques such as computers and their programming systems." (Ibid.)

Librarianship is responsible for storing and disseminating knowledge, and documentation is concerned with storing and retrieving recorded documentary information; both are considered applied branches of information science.

---- 1984:

Library information sciences is defined as "a single unified discipline dealing with the management of information resources for the purpose of maximizing the utility of recorded records for the benefit of individuals, organizations, and for society at large." (p.185)

The education for librarianship should focus on philosophy, theory and principles relevant to the field as a whole and be responsive to the cultural, social and educational changes.

The unified library information science can be advanced by integrating in the curriculum the concepts of information science, use of computers and telecommunication systems.

BOSTWICK, A.E., 1907:

Bostwick considers books as a basis for librarianship. They are transmitters of knowledge, the librarian is their agent encouraging reading. The purposeful reading in an esthetic and ethical environment enriches inner life of the reader.

This idealistic view considers the book as an object of affection because it contains both facts and ideas. Its content (the soul) expresses a universal mind of humanity, while its material aspects (paper, ink, etc.) express the body of the book. The true lover loves the soul with proper attention given to its body. However, this love is not synonymous with the love of knowledge (knowledge may not be recorded, or recorded in other media); it is a love of ideas, and of the way they are recorded.

BOTHA, WILLEN M., 1989:

The author discusses Shera's social epistemology and P.C. Coetzee's culturology of readership. Both demonstrate the existence of some basic concepts in library and information science that survived recent changes by emphasizing the value of information in librarianship.

BOWKER, RICHARD R., 1989:

The functions of the 19th century librarians were organizing, indexing and thought-saving the records of the culture; the librarians of the 20th century are liberators of books more than their keepers. Bowker felt that the librarian's mission to maintain close relation with his readers was one of the major 19th century library contributions to the next generation.

BOYCE, BERT R., and DONALD H. KRAFT, 1985:

The authors define a principle as a "single fundamental law, generally an empirical regularity based on continued observation" and maintain that the function of a theory is "to incorporate a body of such principles and to suggest new principles." (p.154)

The principles of information theory are based on Shannon model of communication. The principles of indexing as representation for retrieval are prescriptions not descriptions of indexing. Models of information retrieval are not principles or theories explaining retrieval processes, but representations of relations between queries for information and available records in databases. Bibliometrics provides quantitative descriptions of written documentations.

The authors conclude that information science "has been more concerned with facilitation of communication processes than with their explanation." (p.165) They are not aware of any "theory in information science that suggests a testable phenomenon whose successful observation would add to its credence." (p.Ibid.)

BOYCE, BERT R., 1994:

"Library and information science is the study of how people behave in the context of media for exchange of information, just as economics is the study of how people behave in the context of media for exchange of goods and services. If people care about what is being exchanged then the medium of exchange, and what happens in a society when it is utilized, becomes a legitimate subject for study in the social sciences." (p.257)

"The social purpose of the economy is the creation of goods, services, and jobs . . . the purpose of information is the creation of knowledge and ideas." (Ibid.) This calls for emphasis in educational curricula on the subject matter of library discipline, not on the techniques currently used, it is not being accomplished in many library schools, and is overlooked by profession. "It is library education, not the library, nor the need for the librarian, that is dying." (p.258)

BRAHM, WALTER, 1964:

Major problems of the public library are the population explosion, increase in variety of and need for knowledge. The problems are augmented by the philosophy of the localism, lacking coordination between individual regions. The argument, based on quick access to the collection becomes obsolete with network approach.

BRAMLEY, GERALD, 1969:

Approaches to library education reflected different philosophical positions of its leaders. Dewey confused librarianship as a vocation with than of a trade. Tedder identified librarianship with the profession, William F. Poole considered librarianship to be an art with preferred training in library practice.

Initially, the approach to library education was to minimize the concept of a library as a storehouse of knowledge, by focusing on the use of libraries, convenient classification of material and efficient cataloging. The attitude changed with the establishment of the Graduate Library School at the University of Chicago; it aimed at the research into the basic problems of librarianship, applying scientific methods of investigation. Librarians began to address fundamental principles of their profession.

BREIVIK, PATRICIA SEN and E. GORDON GEE, 1989:

The authors believe that the concept of information literacy will increase library participation in university instructional activities, by providing opportunities for self-directed, lifelong, active and integrated learning in the library environment. The library role will be extended by increasing the productivity of researchers, serving university patrons and administrative needs.

BRETZ, RUDDY, 1971:

Information is that which is perceived; in information system, information is the content of a message; a datum is a statement. Information to become knowledge must be sensed, perceived, comprehended and integrated into the existing structure of a person; it must relate to the individual's store of patterns and structures.

Knowledge is something stored in the brain; it is the content of human memory organized for retrieval. Instruction is a process of dishing out information, not a thing existing in space or time but a process. Instructional systems are designed for achieving learning.

BREWER, J.G., 1970:

Library history is closely related to the geography, since both refer to the environment, "the substance of history is the activity of men whose actions, although not determined by their surroundings, are necessarily related to the conditions in which they live." (p.255)

Comparative librarianship is essentially a geographical study of library specific environment, incorporating unique natural and cultural aspects that influence philosophy of librarianship.

BRIER, SÚREN, 1991:

This paper presents a non-reductionistic and interdisciplinary interpretation of information science, based on (a) the new cybernetics that interprets information as a "system communicated through signs with a meaning content based on social practice" (p.97); (b) Pierce's semiotics "where signs are seen as a triadic relation between an object, a representer and an interpretant"; (ibid.) and (c) Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus approach that limits the rule-driven control of behavior to the early stage of person's development. Librarians analyze the user's requests for information by comparing their questions with earlier experiences, which provide the clues for the actual patron's needs.

"The major problem in information and library science is therefore not to find 'the laws of information', but to make theoretical knowledge from very different areas of research interact with practical experience in a fruitful and practical way in relation to some well-defined goals." (p.107)

BRIGGS, ALLEN F., 1959:

Significant in the concept of librarianship is an understanding of librarian's obligations: like Cerberus, he is a keeper of things nobody wants, or like Hebe he is anxious to share the collection with everybody. The most important function of librarianship is the storing and use of knowledge; librarians either know, or know were to find out what they do not know. "Children must be taught the escape which can be found in books; if they are not, they cannot keep any kind of intellectual freedom of choice, but will simply become captive slaves of the whims of the propaganda merchants." (p.41)

BRILLOUIN, LEON, 1962:

Information is a function of the ratio of the number of possible answers before and after it is obtained. We choose a logarithmic law in order to insure additivity of the information contained in independent situations. (p. x)

This approach applies to a variety of information related problems in coding, telecommunication, computers, and others, by processing or transmitting information. However, this method cannot be used in interpreting human values of information. Hence, the definition of information is value-neutral, objective and independent of the observer.

Technical issues are always the same: an accurate and correct transfer of information. The similarity with the physicist is in the relation of information to entropy as its opposite, i.e., information is negentropy, while entropy is a measure of the lack of information. Both must be considered together by comparing "the loss of negentropy (increase of entropy) with the amount of information obtained." (p. xii)

BRISCOE, PETER and others, 1986:

The first known library in Asurbanipal (7th century B.C.) performed the same basic functions that are performed by libraries today: it collected, cataloged, conserved, provided reference and circulated books.

Three environmental trends may impact on today's libraries: (1) growth of an information industry, which becomes a potential competitor to the universities and libraries by repacking its services as information products; 2) proliferation of computer terminals will encourage users to bypass the library; and (3) shift in publishing to electronic media will impact on the management of libraries. The library of the future will be a broker of information.

Information and knowledge are a part of a continuum, or the beginning and end of a process, and although knowledge subsumes information, the converse is not true.

BROADFIELD, A., 1946:

The book discusses the role of classification in the philosophy of librarianship with a focus on the preservation of individual characteristics in classifying concepts.

The study of classification involves logic (a set of rules, not values) and psychology (the perception of likeness). The objective of classification is to identify differences and similarities between individuals without compromising the individualities of each. Basic is the relationship between things. The apprehension of likeness is merely a pointer to possible interrelations between concepts..

The relations include: (1) similarities (implication of interchangability), (2) comprehension of relations between concepts, (3) relationships are studied not so much of the resemblance, but of the characteristics they reflect, (4) resemblance is an identity in difference ('unlike' is what's left after all 'likes' are identified).

Logical division is based on the genus-species relations in a logical, not biological or temporal sense of the term. Logical order is a unity of necessarily related concepts. The correlation between this and any other order is similar to a mathematical association, and is not subject to empirical observations. Classification involves differentiating between qualities; its aim is not to arrange things one after another, but to state how they are interrelated. It is concerned not with individuals of a kind, but with the kinds of individuals, and with kinds of things, not their materiality.

The consensus is an agreement, unanimity; the classification is a system of expressed judgments, or agreements, therefore it must be critical.

In classification distinction is made between (a) class concept (e.g., a man), (b) concept of things included in the class (e.g., a concept of a man), and (c) object denoted by the class (the men themselves).

---- 1949

This is an argument in favor of individual; the primary role of the library is to provide the individual patrons with needed recorded material, from which they can choose what they need. Any attempt to influence the individual is wrong.

Philosophy is a very personal matter, it cannot be made to order. Philosophy of librarianship cannot be confused with a narrow field and must be distinguished from ideology, which may be determined by librarians' own inclination and preference.

The same philosophy is not desirable or possible for all librarians, but each should have its own. Major attributes of such philosophy are: (a) freedom of thought (from the government or group tyranny) (b) its function is to inform patrons about available records, but not to service them (patron should not be dependable on librarians' services), (c) each patron is a unique individual, (d) social goods are means not ends in themselves, (library is learning not a social institution), (e) librarianship should support no one ideology, (f) efficiency is a function not a criterion for making choices and (g) librarian is to serve all by serving each individual's unique needs.

The relationships between science, philosophy and librarianship are illustrated below.

Science is in search of questions to be asked, librarianship searches for the recorded answers to these questions.

Tolerance is defined as an absence of specific belief other than belief in people's right to pursue their own goals. It is limited by fear of intellectual failure, insecurity and ignorance. Ideas preached should be also practiced, opinions should be distributed not propagated; toleration of ideas does not mean practicing them. Impartiality is a state of mind (active neutrality), an absence of a judgment.

Individual should be the end of all cooperation; cooperation should be in a form of collaboration (authority by consensus). Common good is common only if it is good for every individual in a group ('good for all' = 'good to each separately'). Rights of borrowers should equal those of the lenders.

Specialization is determined by the extend of relationships between concepts (universals) and their particulars. The purpose of specialization is to discover the particulars and to understand relations between them. Since total knowledge will never be known, specialization is good for limited, specific purposes only. The librarian is responsible for total knowledge, the bibliography is only his tool. A. Comte developed an authoritarian dogma and hierarchy, confusing knowledge with what it is of, because hierarchy in science doesn't equal that in nature; any classification is justified only for the special purpose.

BRODERICK, DOROTHY M., 1963:

This is a discussion of 'shaky' concepts that: (a) book selection is an orderly process; (b) freedom to read implies unlimited freedom; (c) the public library is responsible for providing material on all sides of a given question; and that (d) library is exclusively responsible to the community that founded it. The library is not a status quo institution, it must lead by recognizing new ideas.

---- 1967:

The primary responsibility of library today is to other agencies of society, and only secondarily to the individual patron. The first of these responsibilities is the integration of knowledge, the second, the unification of culture.

BROOKES, B.C., 1973:

Shera's concept of 'macrobibliography' or 'social

epistemology' provides a bridge between library and information science. Macro-approach means exploring the role of bibliography in communication processes, and emergence of specific functions of and needs for bibliography and coordination between them.

In the theory of graphic communication a distinction is made between communication as the end (best fitting the objectives) and as an instrumentality (its nature).

In social epistemology (understanding of the whole society's physical, psychological and intellectual environment) bibliography is substituted for graphic communication and intellectual products for ideas or cognitive elements.

Bibliographic studies consist of situational analysis (essential information) and analysis of the information unit (of micro and macro elements in information).

Shera's theory was reinforced by (a) Goffman's epidemiological theory of similarity between the dissemination of knowledge and the spread of infectious disease and (b) Bradford's law of scatter that (1) relates sources to the number of items they produce, (2) predicts number of items in a relevant bibliography; and (3) identifies obsolescence of information in terms of exponential law of decay.

---- 1974:

Fairthorne is considered as one of the founders of information science who defined the scope, clarified the terminology and defined basic principles of the discipline.

Information has its own laws; physical information is abundant and hence it calls for selection; it also requires minimum energy for its transmission between human minds; it is the cheapest commodity.

Information extends man's knowledge by storing and processing devices such as computer and telecommunication system. In an open system information is constantly drawn from the environment into new structures of orderly knowledge (negative entropy). A dead organism becomes a closed system (entropy).

Man acquires subjective and creates objective knowledge by absorbing information cognitively in terms of its relation to the knowledge acquired in the past. Information starts as a genetic and biochemical process, becoming sensory and finally cognitive process. The smallest units of information are called 'intelligibles' by Popper, 'intellectual products' by Shera, and 'cognitive elements' by Brookes.

The author notes a remarkable convergence of Shera's social epistemology, J.Z. Young's description of the biological role of exosomatic brain, and Popper's concept of objective knowledge without a knowing subject. Together they point to a new field of knowledge, information science.

---- 1980a:

Information pervades all human activities, blending objective and subjective aspects of reality. It relates to mind/body dualism of physical and mental worlds.

Plato was a dualist distinguishing between mental and physical phenomena, monists recognized one reality only: Berkeley's mental, or T.H. Huxley's material. Popper conceived it as three worlds, W1: physical (explored by natural scientist and technologists); W2: subjective human knowledge (studied by social scientists and humanists) and W3: man-made, objective, recorded product of human knowledge (records of the other two worlds).

In librarianship and information science records of practical world are collected and organized in W3, and the theoretical task is to describe and explain the interaction between W2 and W3, leading to the organization of recorded knowledge. The records become independent of the knowing subject; they are objective, accessible and proper subject for the study of knowledge (Popper's epistemology without a knowing subject). However, Popper ignored the concept of 'information' by confusing it with sense-data.

Brookes defines "knowledge as a structure of concepts linked by their relations and information as a small part of such structure." (p.131) In the theory of information, "the fundamental entities of World 1 are matter, energy and radiation; the fundamental entities of Worlds 2 and 3, as fundamental to those worlds as matter and energy are to World 1, are information and knowledge." (p. 132).

---- 1980b:

Frequency-rank statistics is a preferred method in the analyses of empirical information. Traditional use of classes do not include information related to the individuality of human responses. The frequency-rank distribution "yields one statistical law for the very rich, others for the rich, the average man, the poor and yet another for the very poor."

(p.221)

Information space like the physical space requires adjustments for the subjective distortions. Important is the metaphysical approach to the issue of physical-mental realities. In psychology, the experimentalists adopt monist physicalists' attitude and their use of objective measuring instruments and quantitative techniques (W1), while psychoanalysts accept priority of a mental, subjective, cognitive reality (W2).

---- 1981:

This series of essays relates to two main issues: (1) separation of the physical and mental components of information phenomena, and (2) the role of Bradford's Law and ranking technique used in investigating information contained in raw data.

Librarians' physical problem is to assure easy access to the most often used material; information scientists' cognitive problem is to relate the problem of usage of library records to the changes in the relevant fields.

Brookes identifies four main elements in the changing paradigm related to information science: (1) the role of information science is to explore and organize Popper's objective world 3. (2) the approach is scientific by considering all data publicly observable, (3) information (fragmented knowledge) and knowledge (coherent structure of information) are extra-physical entities existing only in a cognitive space and (4) quantitative analysis is adapted for use in cognitive space, recognizing human individuality and value of empirical data.

---- 1982:

Brookes maintains that (a) Librarians don't organize knowledge but classify books; (b) the information - knowledge is a dynamic, continuous process; (c) information and knowledge are not physical entities; (d) subjective information processes are inaccessible, but objective process can be captured quantitatively; (e) creation of a mechanism that simulates mental processes ought to be supported metaphysically. (f) Only human endows various binary sequences in the computer with information, and only humans react to information, while nonhuman reactions are to physical effects, governed by physical laws; and (g) the practice of information science is highly subjective.

Bibliographic information retrieval merely maximizes the probability of recalling relevant documents, hence it is a subjective process.

---- 1984:

Popper argues that scientific truth depends on the evidence at the time, and therefore we can be certain only that some propositions are false. Alvey's 'Intelligent Knowledge Base System' is based on coherent (not necessarily true) syntheses of the logically incoherent files of data, simulating the subjective, mental processes.

BROOME, E.M., 1987:

The author criticizes Lowell Martin's proposal that in case of austerity, the library should return to basic services and to concentrate on libraries existing strengths. This view is based on an assumption that patron's aspiration will always outstrip available resources, and that library should adopt H.S. White concept of 'ingratiated irreplaceability', i.e., considered itself indispensable to the public.

Broome maintains that this approach motivated by self-interest of librarians should be replaced by a broader public library mission to provide opportunities for self-education, developing new services, free access, and to encourage serendipity of the search by patrons rather than to provide demand-led services. "Libraries have no single aim: their purposes are multifarious." (p. 563)

BROWN, H.G., 1940:

Brown disagrees with MacLeish's call for librarians support of democracy, considering it an uncritical endorsement of a political system. He also opposes the concept of librarian-teacher as too limited, since the intellectual inquiry cannot be limited by political, religious or any other beliefs.

BROWN, JOHN SEELY, 1986:

Access to and manipulation of information must move beyond rigid software system to manage the content rather than the form of information, and to explain how to retrieve the meaning of information (a function similar to human process of reading a text).

"We need a better theoretical understanding of how to construct transparent expansible systems . . . These issues include such broad areas as what information/knowledge is, how its meaning emerges from its form, and what kind of architecture will enable us more readily to build systems that can extract and operate on information content." (p.16)

BROWN, ROYSTON, 1988:

The author lists six librarian's roles in providing information services, as: (1) an honest broker (it involves effective dialogue between public agencies), (2) a facilitator promoting inter-agency partnership, (3) a provider of core collections of service, (4) a guardian of the public good to provide the regulatory framework, (5) an educator offering adequate educational programs, and (6) as an arbiter for the disadvantaged patrons by discriminating in their favor.

BROWNE, MAIREAD, 1986:

The major functions of information professional include: identification of needs, design of a search, retrieval, evaluation, analysis, synthesis, packaging, repackaging, and dissemination of information, and design and provision of information services.

A core course for training information professionals is based on the principles of information practice, grounded in a 'marketing philosophy' of delivering information services. Major areas of study include: (a) significant literature, (b) basic understanding of the organization, structure, major principles, concepts, methods and reasons for the discipline; (c) nature and development of the principle problem-solving techniques and their application.

The concepts and theories of the social science and humanities applicable to the study of information science were reduced to three specific subdisciplines: psychology, communication and sociology of work and organizations.

The six-unit curricular sequences include: (1) foundation for the study of the theory of information science (basic concepts, information transfer, information resource life-cycle), (2) theories about retrieval of specific information, (3) concepts about information user behavior, (4) theoretical underpinning of information retrieval, (5) design of information products (services), and (6) review of all previous theories in the context of the information science per se, focusing on the concept of knowledge

The author cautions that "while there is a core of knowledge and skills relevant to information practitioners this core is not synonymous with the core of librarianship." (p.317)

BRYANT, DOUGLAS W., 1975:

This is an argument for resource sharing among research libraries, through interlibrary cooperation, compilations of bibliographic information and uses of microforms and computers. In addition each library is responsible for direct support of their own scholars and academic programs by acquiring unique materials relevant to their research.

BRYSON, LYMAN, 1937:

The goal of adult education is to provide library materials for individuals requiring knowledge related to their personal or societal needs. The library has the ability to serve both individuals and groups, as "a custodian of all that is not immediate and accessible within the narrow range of each man's personal experience." (p.12)

BRYSON, RONALD, 1970:

"This study constitutes a search for a theoretical framework for the field of librarianship . . . needed in order to define the boundaries of the field, to demonstrate its unity, and to describe the relations between its internal elements, as well as the relations between librarianship and the parent-institutions which develop libraries." (p.1)

Relying on A. Kaplan's philosophy (1964), the author proposes a three-dimensional theory of librarianship based on three sociological laws of: (1) communication-needs expressed by 'information-needs' dimension; (2) organization-development expressed by 'library function' dimension, and (3) division of labor expressed by individual functions dimension.

Each dimension is in turn subdivided into a series of subclasses, each with specific functions: (1) in 'information needs': teaching, learning, professionalism, awareness of events, recreation, research and management of organization, (2) in 'library functions': information services, organization, production and acquisitions of materials, and professional activities, (3) in 'individual functions': technical routines, information processing and administration. The theory is validated by assuming that the subclasses in fact represent the activities in librarianship.

It is an interpretive model which according to Bryson satisfies the purposes for which libraries were developed as organizations.

Bryson distinguishes between: experimental and theoretical laws, identifying two approaches to theory: (1) as a map of reality (realistic view of finding principles in reality) and (2) as instrumental (theory is merely a tool of inquiry used as a guide to a description of that reality).

Following Nagel (1961), Bryson lists three components of a theory: (1) an abstract calculus (a logical skeleton), (2) a set of rules (assigning empirical content to the abstract calculus) and (3) a model (an interpretation of the abstract calculus). Together they form a theory.

In general the theory will systematize thinking, interpret, criticize and unify the laws and guide future observations and theorizing. By searching literature Bryson hopes to refine the conceptualization and to obtain a consensus of understanding.

The author identifies four elements in the theory of librarianship: library, bibliographic universe, service, and community, i.e., the library transmits information in a bibliographical universe to a particular community. In traditional librarianship, the principles were developed in academic style, while in information science these principles are developed in a symbolic style, establishing experimental laws based on observations.

Bryson stresses that librarianship is a social activity, providing communicative channels for individuals in need of information. He considers his theory as 'constructive' (utilizing a simple formal scheme), and 'field' theory (stressing relations between elements, not their attributes).

BUCKLAND, MICHAEL, 1982:

The concept of library goodness is weakened by a lack of coherence. Orr pointed out to two ambiguities that do not necessarily complement each other: the quality (capability) and value (beneficial effect) of library services. Both are difficult to measure. He also added to this distinction the goodness of library management.

Three paradoxes illustrate the problem: (1) evaluation of library material should be of its utility rather than its 'aboutness'. In a narrow sense it is a matter of quality and capability, in a long sense it is its utility. (2) Optimal library size is seldom discussed, although there is a marginal benefit in increased size of the collection, and (3) Lenin appreciated American public library, although he didn't share their goals of free access to information. This points to the dependence of beneficial effects on social determination.

---- 1986:

Licklider anticipated in 1966 the impact of computers on librarianship in a form of a procognitive system; known today as a smart system of information retrieval, related to the computer comprehension of semantic relations.

Changing focus in librarianship between 1880 and 1980 is viewed in terms of three categories: (1) Library values in selection and censorship depend more on the cultural than time factors. (2) Library technology continually improves with time. And (3) library science is interpreted as the understanding of the nature of gathering and retrieval of information, bibliographic control and the history of the profession; this approach will change only gradually. It is rooted in an obscure aspect of human behavior, and may be better understood with a help from cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence. "The interdisciplinary insight available from sociology, psychology, philosophy and linguistic . . . has been modest and more relevant to context and background than to central concerns." (p. 784)

Contemporary library and information services extend the concept of librarianship by including various information-retrieving activities. The discipline ought to become a field in itself by (a) focusing on the abstract representation of knowledge (e.g., analysis, description, storage, retrieval and use of information in the text), (b) stressing physical representation of knowledge (e.g., text-bearing objects, like a card catalog), and (c) developing centrality of information retrieval, since it includes major activities such as indexing, cataloging, classification, content analysis, description, storage and retrieval of information.

In library education the curriculum should include the study of (1) role of library and information in society. (2) information-gathering behavior, (3) theory and practice of information retrieval, and (4) managerial, political and technical aspects of library service.

"Paradoxically . . . the liberating power of the new information technologies will . . . induce renewed attention to . . . traditional, non technological concerns of librarianship - so long as librarianship is a service profession, concerned with ideas as well as records." (p.787)

--- 1988:

In discussing philosophy of librarianship, the author distinguishes between preferred value-ladden philosophical definitions of the discipline (as a system of motivating beliefs, concepts, and principles), and more technical value-free definitions (as synonymous with the 'theory' of processes).

Philosophy of librarianship offers a guiding influence in determining library goals and in the allocation of resources (their cost-effectiveness). The library performs a distinctive social role in providing access to recorded knowledge, reflecting its social usefulness.

Philosophical bases of librarianship can be examined in terms of analysis of its management priorities and effectiveness of services (political and technical).

---- 1991:

Buckland's book focuses on (a) information as a process, (not as data processing but a process of informing the individual), as knowledge (that which is communicated to an individual) and as a thing (a means for importing the information) (b) a broadly defined information system; and (c) information retrieval.

The three reviews of the book (Buckland, 1992) reflect three different interpretations of librarianship.

Lancaster criticizes the book for its omissions of (a) Shannon's model and general systems theory, (b) of the concepts of disinformation and distortion of information and (c) for defining pertinence or topicality as a consensus of objective judgment. The book has many defects and is in Lancaster's words a 'somewhat tedious reading'.

Robert Hayes considers it an excellent book addressing relationships between information and human knowledge. In his focus on the three types of information, mentioned above, Buckland emphasizes the individual human aspects.

Daniel O. O'Connor sees in Buckland's book "a comprehensive and substantive philosophical base that encompasses both fields [librarianship and information science, identifying] . . . common concerns while allowing for the productive inquiry of important problems." (p.269) But he criticizes Buckland for confusing empirical generalizations with theoretical hypotheses, and for omitting the value of qualitative approach.

BUDD, JOHN, 1982:

Librarians are teachers providing both instruction and information. Their primary responsibility is to increase students' knowledge by presenting to them information in an orderly fashion. Teaching considered as an opposite to informing relates to a complex reference service. The difference between teachers and librarians is in the form not the substance.

BUNDY, MART LEE and PAUL Wasserman, 1968:

Interest in the professional status of librarians is based more on their self-interest than on their responsibilities. It is determined by three kinds of relationships. (1) Librarians are medium, rather than the client, oriented, and library patrons not the librarians determine what the want. (2) Librarians' goal to maximize client services is not always compatible with institutional concern about the overall good for the largest number of clients. (3) Librarianship lacks uniformity in formulating its philosophy and professional commitment.

With the possible exception of a librarian considered as a subject specialist, library practices do not meet professional norms and standard. "If librarianship does not move much more rapidly forward toward enhanced professionalism, the field will not only decline, but ultimately face obsolescence." (p. 25)

BUNDY, MARY LEE, 1969:

The primary responsibility of librarians is to their clients. "The user has inalienable rights of information bearing on his intellectual, vocational, political and social life and the librarian must honor these rights above all other claims." (p.3)

The librarian should exercise independent judgment when assisting clients in solving their information problems. The extend of that service must be compatible with the librarian's own ethics. He serves as a mediator between the patron and the system, maintaining confidentiality limited only by law; and his services cannot be in conflict with privacy of other people.

The institution is required to provide librarians with resources needed to perform their job. The library should state clearly the priorities for its services, with emphases on those who need information most.

Librarians are also responsible for their own professional growth and have rights to engage in political activities without institutional restrain in promoting intellectual freedom and free access to information.

BUNGE, CHARLES A., 1984:

The concept of librarians' personal assistance to readers was introduced in 1876 by Samuel S. Green. The terminology changed to 'reference work' in 1891, calling for skillful extracting from the vague patron's request his real needs without being curious or impatient.

In 1920's the reference librarian was considered as an intermediary between the reader and the book, as a 'mind reader' of patrons needs (James I. Wyer). Margaret Hutchins advised librarians to put themselves in the patrons' place, listening carefully to their requests. In 1966 Ellis Mount pointed out to the 'invisible barrier' in the reference interview. In 1968 Robert S. Taylor placed the reference interview in the context of information-seeking human communication, focusing on negotiation and interpretation of patrons questions as reflections of their information needs.

The topic of the reference interview was widely discussed in 1970's, stressing nonverbal uses of communication and development of models borrowed from other fields. Brenda Dervin stressed the importance of interpreting information in terms of the inquirers' own perception of reality and their ways of seeking, evaluating and using information.

The overemphasis of nonverbal behavior and of counseling approach may result in these techniques more as ends in themselves, considering the librarian's role as that of a therapist.

The relationship between the reference librarian and the patron was redefined by Robert Merikangis and Brian Nelson as a partnership "working with the client as an equal partner and to share knowledge that will empower him or her to chose among the alternative solutions and to move away from a relationship of dependency on the professional." (p. 18)

---- 1992:

This is a review of the philosophies and goals of graduate curricula in American library schools. The term 'philosophy' is used as a synonym with 'contexts' of various documents that discuss the library educational programs.

BURKE, JOHN EMMETT, 1950:

The appreciation of beauty is a part of educational goals to cultivate modes of expression in communication, to enrich and to make life more enjoyable. "The philosophy of librarianship should combine scholarship, sympathetic understanding and respect for humanity." (p.279) The function of books is to enlighten, and the librarians should be curators of culture, by cultivating in himself and his patrons good taste for all forms of records.

BURKE, REDMOND A., 1947:

The essay expresses religious view in philosophy of librarianship: to develop world commonwealth and international mind, Christian democracy, scientific truth, and to combat prejudice and encourage Christian code of ethics.

It is a socio-political interpretation of democracy based on Christian theology combining scholarship, sympathetic understanding and respect of humanity.

"The librarian is never neutral on basic questions but is always impartial." (p.15). Neutrality implies no preference relating to basic requirements of the code of ethics.

---- 1953:

The objectives of this study were to review (a) the importance in culture of graphic communication and libraries, (b) the relation of communication media to their cultural background, (c) their significance, problems and development, and (d) the role of library and librarians in promoting culture.

The author followed two parallel lines of investigation: (1) evolution of graphic communication and libraries as cultural instruments (sociological function of a library) and (2) history of events shaping communication system (genealogy and biography of the discipline).

BURTON, MARGARET and MARION E. VOSBURGH, 1934:

In this classified and annotated guide to the library literature, the authors refer to some titles that may be considered historical predecessors of philosophy of librarianship.

Richard de Bury, (ca 1310) praised the book as a source of eternal truth. John Dury, (1650) describes the concept of a librarian as a bookkeeper. Jean Baptiste Cotton des Houssayes, (1780) discusses the duties of a librarian, stressing the service to the public. F. A., Elbert, (1820) was first to identify librarianship as an independent profession. E.G. Vogel (1843) gave an account of librarians duties in the Middle Ages. J.W. Dawson (1910) offered a theoretical discussion of relationships between librarianship and other educational institutions. P. Ladewig (1912) pointed out to the new popularity of librarianship and W.W. Bishop (1926) reviewed the whole field of librarianship in the context of the role of librarian as a scholar and book lover.

BUSCHMAN, JOHN, MARK ROSENZWEIG, and ELAINE HARGER, 1994:

The authors criticize the librarians who want to limit library involvements to social issues that are directly related to the missions of the individual library.

"Ours is a profession broadly concerned with literacy, intellectual freedom, equity of access to information, and the preservation and dissemination of cultural production. With such values, how can we turn a blind eye to issues of civil rights, human dignity, and the social and economic conditions in which human culture develops (or regresses) and remain a responsible profession? (p.576). The opposition to the library involvement in social issues is considered by the authors reactionary, hypocritical and intellectually unsound.

BUTLER, PIERCE:

Pierce Butler was a professor at Graduate Library School and a major contributor to the philosophy of librarianship. His views are here briefly summarized.

1. Major themes:

Librarianship is a study of the theory, history and bibliography of scholarship. It is committed to truth, justice and beauty reflected in scholarship, ethics and esthetics.

The intellectual content of librarianship consists of three distinct branches: (a) principles that must be scientifically handled, (b) processes and apparatus that require special understanding and skills for their operations, and (c) cultural motivations that can be apprehended only humanistically. (Butler, P., 1951, p.245).

Butler's philosophy reflects objective realism of empirical investigation of sociological, psychological and historical aspects of culture. It represents a shift of focus from the process to the function of the field.

Librarianship consists of (a) scientific scholarship with the humanistic outlook; scholarship is "the total intellectual content of culture." (Butler, P., 1944, p.7); (b) sociological study of learning by reading, where reading expresses social values, (c) psychological investigation of motivation to read as a way to satisfy needs, and (d) practical concern about the present clientele and its needs, assisting users in transferring knowledge from books to their minds.

As a unique and independent social agency, librarianship should focus on the determination of common denominators among different types of libraries, implementing the reading as central activity, and promoting scholarship.

2. Culturalism

Butler's philosophy of librarianship called 'culturalism', defined intellectual concept of librarianship in terms of scientific principles, their cultural motivation and technological applications; all are seen from the humanistic viewpoint.

"Culture is a pattern of behavior and conduct that has become standardized and traditional in a particular community and period" (Butler, P., 1944, p.6). It is defined (a) historically as a mode of life, (b) structurally as physical equipment, social organization and intellectual scholarship, and (c) practically as a way of coping with nature.

Culture consists of physical, social and intellectual components in dealing with nature. Cultural environment and library relations to the community and scholarship are essential components of library philosophy.

Culture is organically integrated, and the library is a reservoir of scholarship. Library scholarship is defined as a common sense integration and correlation of things already known to practicing librarian. Its functions are: (a) to collect scholarly material, (b) to share resources and (c) to provide bibliographic access to the collection. The scope of librarianship is historical, sociological and philosophical.

3. Comments on:

The Book:

Books are alive, independent of their author, original in comparison with all mechanical constructions that are based on patterns of nature. They express conscious mind in the print format, and hence affect readers' conduct by educating, amusing or motivating him. It should not only be preserved but also disseminated. The book exists in two realms: (a) in nature as a physical object, and (b) in culture as a system of ideas.

There are two main functions of a book: to express emotions and to record information. Similarly there are two purposes of reading: to extend emotional experiences of an individual and to acquire more information about reality. The purpose of a book is to express emotional experiences and to record information, both considered a transfer of culture.

On cataloging:

Cataloging must conform to bibliographical principles and the cataloger is a specialist in an applied psychology and sociology by classifying library material according to the anticipated use. The cataloging is a cooperative enterprise, based on principles of consistency and historicity.

On classification:

Classification is considered not as a pattern of relations between books and knowledge (Bliss, Dewey), but as a useful time saving device. It is a compromise relating the content of a book to the linear relationships between books in a collection.

On epistemology:

Epistemology consists of scientific theory and empirical methodology considered in the context of social values, psychological activities (reading) and historical archival responsibilities

On ethics:

In librarianship ethics aims at satisfaction of informational, inspirational and recreational needs of library patrons

On metaphysics:

Metaphysics focus not on knowledge for knowledge sake, but on facilitation of the use of knowledge

On Reference

The role of reference is to provide specific material as it relates to other books on the same subject and in relation to the patron's needs.

On Scholarship:

Scholarship is defined as the total intellectual content of a culture.

Dimensions of librarianship:

A. The psychological dimension:

Psychology describes activities of an individual (e.g., reading) which are based on desire for information, a will to pursue it and an action to pursue that desire.

Books are social mechanisms for preserving racial memory, a library is a social apparatus for transferring that memory to the consciousness of individuals. Words are less important than ideas. Every man creates a whole world of emotional values as a counterpart of the objective cosmos.

Perception is needed to record something in mind; to retain it requires the creation of a concept, and to recall it is an act of volition animated by desire. Graphic record preserve information even if seldom used; the mind retains only what is frequently repeated.

Reading is a psychological activity; structurally it parallels sensual perception and reflex memory, which together contribute to the rise of intellectual concepts. Motives to read must be strong enough to overcome rival motives. Personal habits and social environment determine whether a psychological urge to read becomes action or is merely potential. The urge may be for information, esthetic appreciation or a direct pleasure as an escape from reality.

B. Scientific Dimension:

The scientific mode of thought is seldom generalized beyond the particular form of mechanistic phenomena, and it is not interested in metaphysical analyzes.

Truth is an absolute conformity between ideas and external reality. Hence all valid knowledge arises from data supplied by direct, qualitative observations. Validity of the method and functional significance is often more important than is the extend of the knowledge.

The experiment is a technique rather than a method, and its significance is in providing opportunities for more observations. Physical science is based on collection of data by observation, explained in terms of immediate causation, and evaluated by a process of integration.

Library methodology should adapt scientific collection of data, explanation of causal relations between them and the statistical randomness used to remove controls of determinism.

C. Sociological Dimension

Sociological approach focuses on the social quality of books. Social duty of an individual is to respect common good, his privilege is to have access to socially accumulated knowledge.

Meaning of words is determined by their social use rather than by logical definition. Learning by reading is an intellectual metabolism that must go on ceaselessly in a society, if the well-being of that society is to be maintained. Library selection of material must relate to the people served as the sole criterion of social efficiency.

D. The historical dimension:

Historically librarians are the archivists of the culture. Graphic records reflect intellectual environment, changing with times and dividing knowledge into factual (standards), esthetic (literature of knowledge) and scholarship (individual's intellectual experiences). Butler demonstrates strong contextual view based on scientific verification and rational analysis.

The medieval mind appealed to authority, the renaissance approach to sense of value, and the modern mind demand an objective realism. The pre-modern man conceived an idea of causality as an external compulsion: the cause radiated a force, and an external reaction to it. Cause was considered as sufficient in explaining the effect. The modern man sees causality in terms of identity internally transformed, requiring absolute equivalence between cause and effect. Premodern man lacked modern plastic minds: the only common element in the knowledge range was its logical process itself. Modern man developed an intellectual concept of organic unity of knowledge. Each age created a collection of graphic records reflecting its intellectual habits; every major change in the social ideals produced alteration in library collections.

Librarians reflect one of the following schools of historical thought: classic view stressing importance of the best books for the readers; evolutionary theory of literary history evaluating books in terms of their contribution to progress; and the view considering literature as a function of civilization by focusing on the intellectual state of the reader.

The individual works:

---- 1931:

Bliss was fundamentally an orthodox, and revolutionary but not a radical philosopher, while Melvin Dewey was a logician. Both started with the same premise and assumed a strict parallelism between knowledge and books, agreeing that any relationships within one field apply to the other.

However, "to discuss classification as an entity is to assume for the whole what is true for only specific parts . . . library classification is and can be no more than a mere empirical equilibrium of divergent forces obtained by compromise"; (p. 93) "to assume that, because of its usefulness it is a part of knowledge process itself, is to ignore completely its manifold and necessary inadequacies." (Ibid.)

The classification system may be of value to the beginning library patron as a point of departure, for the more advanced user bibliographical guides are more efficient ways of searching the collection.

---- 1933:

Butler expressed a social science viewpoint by considering librarian as an agent of society and library as a social institution. The intellectual concept of librarianship consists of scientific principles, technological applications and cultural motivations, all seen from the humanistic viewpoint. It opposes pragmatism because of its rationalization of library techniques, which is a futile, dangerous simplification.

Butler's approach to social research in librarianship was not new, but the scope of his commentaries posed three leading questions: (1) what is the library place in civilization? (2) How to bring into a single focus all diverse interests of the library? and (3) what are the standards of scholarship?

Philosophy of librarianship formulates objectives and responsibilities of librarians. Called by Butler 'culturalism' it is based on an understanding of the nature of scholarship and its function in a society. It encompasses the following elements: (a) the library stands in the total fabric of civilization, (b) bringing all diverse library interests into one focus, and (c) defining standards of scholarship. The philosophy is formulated in the context of the individual as a member of a society with library assisting him to achieve his own, private, not antisocial purposes.

Butler stressed the need to transfer the attention from process to function, to seek knowledge in phenomena rather than in particular occurrences, to study librarianship rather than single libraries. Library science can embrace only the rational side of the fundamental phenomenon of librarianship that is the transmission of the accumulated experience of society to its individual members through books.

Books are used as a process of 'learning by reading', resulting in obtaining knowledge. All books are records of authors' knowledge as perceived, thought or felt by them. The librarian is not concerned with literature as literature or with knowledge as knowledge. His primary interest is in the current use of graphic records in his own time and his own community.

A formal bibliography is as related to history of books as chronology is to history of any social activity: it is a bare, simplified summary fact. The bibliography is important not so much for the process by which it is compiled, but for the function it serves in providing material to the reader.

---- 1942:

The author argues for the theory of librarianship that can be developed without sacrificing practical efficiency. He distinguishes two general purposes in the use of books: to express emotional experience or to record information. Education, research, communication and consultation are the basic methods for the transmission of knowledge, with specific function of reference providing information to the organized collection of books.

Intellectual process consists of using libraries rather than individual books, books provide informative content interrelated between different publications. There are four methods for the transmission of knowledge through education, research, social communication, and reference.

Butler concludes his essay by proposing five practical principles: (1) In a civilization books are used in several different cultural processes. (2) The subject content of a book does not determine or limits its functional uses. (3) Reference work is only one of the many activities that take place in the normal reference room. (4) Invention, or discovery of new knowledge is one of the three processes of civilization; the others are conservation and transmission of knowledge, and (5) objectivity is very important in reference work.

---- 1944:

This is an outline of an introductory course in the history of scholarship. The course consists of three parts: theory, history and bibliography. Typical issues include: common factors among different types of librarianship, reasons for different services offered by librarians; the position of library in total culture, and library standards.

Standards of librarianship include: reading as its central activity, and promotion of scholarship as its purpose. The library is an independent agent of scholarship performing unique functions of diversified and balanced collection of books. Its theories must be concerned with scholarship and its function in civilization, hence the working philosophy of librarianship may be called 'culturalism.'

Each culture has three elements by which it implements its standardized and traditional patterns of behavior and conduct: physical equipment, social organization and system of ideas,

Types of scholarship consist of: (a) empirical, based on demonstration, (b) oral, expressed in verbal texts, and (3) graphic scholarship recorded in writings.

The processes of scholarship may be: (a) analytical: alinear, single path thought process from sense organs to consciousness, from premise to conclusion, (b) synthetical, psychological manipulation of many factors, or logical production of common sense from variety of inferential processes, and (c) intellectual capacity for manifold awareness and inferences. Ideas are consolidated by generalizations, aggregations or pure abstractions.

The products of scholarship are: (a) the sciences (inductions from experiments, observations or generalizations), (b) technologies (engineering) (c) concrete humanities (specific places, persons, periods, events); and (d) abstract humanities (philosophy, metaphysics, theology).

The economics of scholarship addresses: (a) its products (fabrication and construction), (b) storage of scholarship (scientific and literary texts), (c) the distribution (education), (d) consumption and (e) agents of scholarship (distributive).

Standards of scholarship are subject to various fallacies: (1) of constants (monistic fallacy) identifying a variable with one of its particular values; (2) of convenience (operative fallacy) identifying a problem with its solution, (3) of process (mechanistic fallacy) identifying a thing with the activities that produce it, and (4) of origin (genetic fallacy) identifying a totality with its components, or an end product with its original.

---- 1945:

This is a review of the Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft (1931-40), in which the whole intellectual content of modern librarianship is structured into a logical system.

Most of the contemporary professional literature is limited to technological writings, administrative discourses or the normative works about the adequacy and efficiency of the present library system.

The second type of literature deals with the historical empiricism, but very little was written about librarianship analyzed from the professional viewpoint. Such writings ought to include historical, sociological and philosophical studies.

"If librarianship ever achieves a philosophy worthy of the name, it must not only explain the book and the library in terms of man's nature and his status in the cosmos but also rationalize the librarian's ingrained loyalties to truth, justice, and beauty." (p.350)

---- 1951:

The philosophy of librarianship should formulate its objectives and appraise its responsibilities. The intellectual content of librarianship consists of scientific principles, technological understanding of processes and cultural motivation, apprehended humanistically. The cultural motivation is the promotion of wisdom in the individual and in the community.

Butler identified three phases in the development of modern librarianship characterized by: (1) interest in professional activities as a bookman vs. custodial (1850s); (2) closer attention paid to manipulative operations; a librarian becomes a technician in addition to a bookman (1870s); (3) emphasis on individual and community changing from description to explanation of library activities (1920s).

Presently (i.e., in 1940s) librarianship is seeking the philosophy of its discipline in order to attain self-consciousness and awareness of its cultural environment.

The modern approach ought to be based on the principle of scholarship's cultural functions rather than its processes, considered as an organic integration of scholarship, a physical equipment and a social organization. "Knowledge in itself is meaningless. Unless it is personally assimilated and its implications comprehended, it has no human value." (p.246)

---- 1952:

The culture is defined (a) historically as a mode of life, (b) structurally as a complex of physical (equipment), social (organization) and intellectual (scholarship) components, and (c) practically as means for dealing with nature.

Culture is uniquely human and consists of rational consciousness of an individual, his nature and values. Man can rearrange the content of his environment to produce things that without him could have no existence. He evaluates everything in cultural standards, combining material, social and intellectual values.

The intellectual development depends more on communication of ideas than on direct experiences. The library is 'a reservoir of scholarship' providing bibliographic controls of the collection of books, fulfilling the economic function of providing rare and expensive volumes to its patrons. Each library can be appraised by the quality of its scholarship, the utility of its service, and the magnitude of its operations, relevant to the needs of its community; "the library contributes not merely to the well-being of civilization but to its existence." (p.91)

---- 1953a:

Library scholarship must be based on systematic common sense, identifying, correlating and interpreting things already well known to the practicing librarian. The library is a source of information, recreation and inspiration to the individual reader.

Major library functions are: (1) scholarly, as a provider of needed information but also as a corrective to intellectual fragmentation imposed by specialization, (2) economic, by providing books to everybody independently of their cost, and (3) bibliographical by developing collections that are selected and organized in reference to their content and discipline.

"Any one who studied librarianship systematically must discover principles that prevail in every other reach of civilization. Accordingly a through-going philosophy of librarianship would be a philosophy of universal application." (p.9)

---- 1953b:

This is a sociological view of a book as an independent entity. Books are animated by the personality of the authors yet independent of them; all have their own non-biological life.

The book is original, has no prototype. It transcends the nature, (a) its meaning is assigned artificially and arbitrary to symbols, although the idea communicated by a book may be original; (b) reader thinking is in terms of words read in a book, and (c) subconscious uses of letters communicate things other than the author intended.

Books are the shortcuts to learning, because they are substitutes for experience, though and memory. The longevity of a book is necessary for the civilization.

Study of librarianship should include the knowledge of bibliographic history, production and forms of publication, legal, economic and intellectual aspects of book dissemination.